What Are The Career Opportunities Of An English Graduate?


 “It took me fifteen years to discover I had no talent for writing, but I couldn’t give it up because by then I was too famous.”
Robert Benchley
Literary Insults

Diverse Pathways Await English Graduates

Exploring the Range of Career Options for Graduates in English Studies

As an English graduate, you might wonder about the numerous career opportunities that await you. The skills and knowledge acquired during your studies can open doors to a wide array of professional paths across various industries. Whether you have a passion for literature, writing, communication, or critical thinking, there are numerous options to consider. Below, we explore some of the potential career paths that English graduates can pursue.

Education and Teaching

Many English graduates find fulfillment in sharing their passion for language and literature by becoming educators. They can pursue teaching roles in schools, colleges, language institutes, or even offer private tutoring services.

Instructing, efficient introduction of certainties, thoughts, abilities, and systems to understudies. Albeit people have survived and advanced as an animal type mostly as a result of an ability to share learning, instructing as a calling did not rise until moderately as of late. The social orders of the antiquated world that made considerable advances in information and government, in any case, were those in which uncommonly assigned individuals accepted accountability for teaching the youthful.

News coverage and Writing

Journalism, assembling, assessing, and circulating actualities of current intrigue. In news coverage, correspondents explore and compose stories for print and electronic circulation, frequently with the direction of editors or makers. The soonest columnists created their stories for news sheets, brochures, daily papers, and periodicals. With mechanical advances, news coverage came to incorporate other media, for example, radio, narrative or newsreel movies, TV, and the Internet.

Not all news coverage graduates look for work in the news media. A considerable extent takes part in advertising, promoting, instructing, or different correspondences occupations. Courses in news coverage instruction programs much of the time incorporate announcing, newswriting, altering, broadcasting, new media, and related courses, and also advertising, publicizing, showcasing, and sociology examine managing the procedure and impacts of mass correspondences.

TV, Radio, Film, Drama and Music

Radio and Television Broadcasting, essential means by which data and excitement are conveyed to the general population in for all intents and purposes each country around the globe. The term broadcasting alludes to the airborne transmission of electromagnetic sound signs (radio) or varying media signals (TV) that are open to a wide populace by means of standard, promptly accessible recipients. The term has its beginnings in the medieval horticultural routine with regards to "broadcasting," which alludes to planting seeds by scrambling them over a field.

Broadcasting is a critical instrument of present day social and political association. At its pinnacle of impact in the mid-twentieth century, radio and TV broadcasting was utilized by political pioneers to address whole countries. Due to radio and TV's ability to reach and impact vast quantities of individuals, and inferable from the constrained range of frequencies accessible, governments have regularly controlled telecom wherever it has been polished. 

In the mid 1980s, new innovations, for example, satellite TV and videocassette players—started disintegrating the strength of broadcasting in mass correspondence, part gatherings of people into littler, socially particular sections. Beforehand the main methods for conveying radio and TV to home beneficiaries, broadcasting is currently only one of a few conveyance frameworks accessible to audience members and watchers. Now and again communicating is utilized as a part of a more extensive sense to incorporate conveyance strategies, for example, wire-borne transmission, yet these are all the more precisely called "narrowcasting" on the grounds that they are by and large restricted to paying endorsers.

Digital Media and Online Publishing

In the age of digitalization, English graduates can venture into digital media, online journalism, or web content creation for digital platforms, magazines, or news websites.

Content Creation and Copywriting

English graduates possess strong writing and communication skills, making them ideal candidates for content creation roles. They can excel as content writers, bloggers, social media managers, and copywriters for marketing agencies, businesses, or online platforms.

Publishing and Editing

A career in publishing and editing awaits those with a keen eye for detail and a love for literature. English graduates can work as editors, proofreaders, or literary agents for publishing houses, literary magazines, or online publications.

Journalism and Media

With their proficiency in crafting compelling narratives, English graduates can thrive in the world of journalism and media. Opportunities include becoming reporters, news writers, content editors, or broadcast journalists.

Public Relations and Communications

English graduates' strong communication skills make them valuable assets in the field of public relations and communications. They can work as PR specialists, media relations managers, or communication strategists for companies and organizations.

Advertising and Marketing

In the advertising and marketing industry, English graduates can contribute as creative writers, brand strategists, content marketers, or advertising copywriters, helping to craft impactful messages for diverse audiences.

Human Resources and Corporate Communications

English graduates' ability to convey information effectively makes them potential candidates for human resources roles, such as HR specialists or corporate communication managers.

Non-Profit and NGO Sector

For those with a desire to make a positive impact, English graduates can explore opportunities within non-profit organizations and NGOs. Roles may include grant writing, communications, or community outreach.

Event Management and Public Speaking

English graduates with excellent communication and organizational skills can find their niche in event management or public speaking, either for corporate events, conferences, or as public speaking trainers.

Research and Analysis

For those who enjoy critical thinking and research, career paths in market research, data analysis, or academic research are worth exploring.

Creative Writing and Authorship

Passionate about writing? English graduates can pursue careers as creative writers, novelists, poets, or scriptwriters, either through traditional publishing or self-publishing platforms.

In conclusion, English graduates possess a diverse skill set that makes them adaptable to various professions. The key is to identify your strengths and interests, and then explore the career options that align with your aspirations. Embrace the versatility of your English degree, and the world of opportunities will unfold before you.


Ref: 1. Vocation - Wikipedia. (2012, July 29). Vocation - Wikipedia. Retrieved November 15, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocation

Lethal Combination of Drunkenness and Pride to Lead Fortunato to His Demise: Edgar Allan Poe's “The Cask On Amontillado”



The terror on “The Cask on Amontillado,” so of deep of Edgar Allan Poe's short stories, resides between the scarcities on evidence so accompanies Montresor’s claims according to Fortunato’s “thousand injuries” yet “insult.” The story purposes retaliation or stolen homicide as much a road in conformity with avoids the use of criminal channels because of retribution.

Life and Career of Mr. Micawber in Dickens’ "David Copperfield": Great Comic Character Second Only to Shakespeare’s Falstaff


Mr. Micawber, one of the outstanding characters in Charles Dickens David Copperfield is a man of kindly, genial nature. Some critics say that he is a pen-portrait of Dickens’ own father. However it may be, there can be no denying the fact that he “is the type of a whole race of men who will not vanish from the earth as long as the hope which lives eternal in the human breast is only temporarily suspended by the laws of debtors and creditors.” A kindlier and merrier a more humorous and more generous character was never conceived than this.

He is one of these optimistic souls who are always waiting for something to turn up, and who are able to maintain their cheerfulness and good spirits despite poverty, debt and imprisonment. Mr. Micawber is typical of those good-for-nothing fellows who are never able to make anything in life, but still manage to live, largely as result of the bounty and generosity of friends, secured for them by their genial and generous temperament.

Mr. Micawber is an immense figure of fun, a great comic character second only to Shakespeare’s Falstaff. As G. K Chesterton says, “If Falstaff is the greatest comic character in literature, Mr. Micawber is the best but one.” One cannot help laughing at the way in which he would make motions at himself, when some creditor would abuse and threaten him, but a moment later would go out cheerfully whistling a merry tune, with an air of greater respectability than ever’ before. The comicality of his character is further heightened by the wife of his bosom, always with a twin at her breast, and always determined never to desert her husband. His sense of humour comes to his rescue even in most trying circumstances. He never loses hope and cheerfulness and radiates joy and happiness around. He carries with him a perpetual sunshine and all those who come in contact with him, bask in it.

Mr. Micawber is a man kindly, sympathetic, and helpful. During his first meeting with David at the warehouse of Murdstone and Grimsby, he offers to come again and take David to his residence, for he knows that David has not been long in London and might forget his way. It is the company of Mr. Micawber, and that of his family, which makes David bear his wretched life in London. Even though he was himself in great financial difficulties, he tried to make David comfort bid in every possible way, and while shifting to prison, took care to make suitable arrangements for lodging.

Charles Dickens by Daniel Maclise
Mr. Micawber is honest to the core and he retains his honesty, despite grinding poverty and crushing weight of debt. Though he lives on debt and borrows money whenever he can— he borrows even from David— he tries his best to repay his creditors. There is never an attempt on his part to cheat them, or to deny his debts. He could unearth all the wicked schemes of Uriah Heep, he could find out that he had cheated Betsy Trotwood by forging the signatures of Mr. Wickfield on certain documents. Had he liked, he could have packed cards with Uriah Heep and thus make much profit for himself, but he does never think in these terms. No thought of personal aggrandizement ever crosses his mind. Rather, he comes to the aid of Betsy Trotwood, exposes Uriah Heep and has him brought to book. He acts nobly, selflessly, and brings hope and comfort not only to Miss Trotwood, but also to Agnes and her wretched father — all helpless victims of the poisonous Heep.

In the end, Mr. Micawber’s virtue and goodness is suitably rewarded and he becomes a successful Magistrate in Australia. Critic after critic has criticized this sudden conversion of Micawber as inconsistent with his previous character and, therefore unconvincing and a serious fault. There is no doubt that till now he had been a lazy, good for nothing fellow who could not earn an honest penny. But this was largely owing to the fact that he never got a suitable opening in life. That he had the necessary intelligence and resourcefulness is clearly shown, by the clever way in which he precedes in the Uriah Heep affairs. He goes through the documents and collects all the relevant evidence under the very nose of Heep, without exciting the least suspicion. He denounces him with great tact and boldness, does not permit him sent to the lock-up. No wonder that he could become successful as a magistrate in Australia.

👊Points to Remember:
👉Mr. Micawber is a character in Charles Dickens' novel "David Copperfield," known for his humorous and memorable personality.
👉He is a dear friend of the protagonist, David Copperfield, and serves as a father figure in David's life.

👊Key points about Mr. Micawber's life and career include:

Financial Struggles: Mr. Micawber faces numerous financial difficulties throughout the novel, often finding himself in debt and facing the threat of imprisonment due to his inability to manage his finances.
Optimistic Outlook: Despite his troubles, Mr. Micawber maintains an unwavering optimism, frequently reciting his famous mantra: "Something will turn up."
Legal Career: He aspires to be a successful legal professional, but his career ambitions are often thwarted by his financial troubles.
Loyalty and Friendship: Mr. Micawber's loyalty to David Copperfield is evident as he constantly offers support and advice, even in his own challenging circumstances.
Comic Relief: His humorous and eccentric behavior provides comic relief throughout the novel, endearing him to readers.
Symbol of Resilience: Mr. Micawber's ability to stay positive in the face of adversity makes him an enduring and beloved character in literature.

👉Mr. Micawber is often regarded as one of the greatest comic characters in English literature, second only to Shakespeare's iconic creation, Falstaff.
👉His memorable catchphrases and unique personality have made him an enduring and influential figure in the world of literature.


Ref:
1. David Copperfield - Wikipedia. (2015, March 24). David Copperfield - Wikipedia. Retrieved November 21, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Copperfield
2. David Copperfield | Summary, Analysis, Adaptations, & Facts. (2016, November 4). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved November 21, 2016, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/David-Copperfield-novel
3. The Project Gutenberg eBook of David Copperfield, by Charles Dickens. (n.d.). The Project Gutenberg eBook of David Copperfield, by Charles Dickens. Retrieved November 21, 2016, from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/766/766-h/766-h.htm

Rise to an Unprecedented Spirit of Satire in the Augustan Age: From John Dryden to Dr. Johnson


“We must beat the iron while it is hot, but we may polish it at leisure.”
John Dryden (1631 - 1700)
English poet, playwright, and literary critic.
Aeneis

Various causes gave rise to an unprecedented spirit of satire in the Augustan age, from John Dryden (1631-1700) to Samuel Johnson (1709-1784). It is a materialistic age in which certain fashions and modes of behaving and taste hold away.

 (1) What is considered “genteel taste” is vigorously upheld, and any deviation from it is satirized.
(2) “Correctness” and “good sense” are the order of the day. Emphasis is on reason and correct observation of certain rules both in literature and social life. Rationalism develops clear thinking and the temptation to pronounce judgment is strong. This accounts for the rise both social and literary satire.
 (3) The restoration witnessed a revolt against Puritan austerity. There was also a reaction against religious hypocrisy. The religious and the devout were criticized as hypocrites. The Puritans were the special targets of satire. The devout, on the other hand, satirized the court and the courtly circles as immoral.
(4) Political strife also accounts for the growth of the spirit of satire. The age witnessed the rise of the two political parties. Whigs and Tories and each tried to enlist the support of the leading writers of the day. Much satire, often virulent and abusive, was hurled at one’s political opponents.
(5) The imitation of the classics also did much to promote the growth of satire. Horace (65-8 bc), Juvenal (65?-128?) and Persius (34-62) were translated and widely read and enjoyed. They inspired the poets of the age to take to satire and to encourage folly as they had done in age gone by. Classical tradition had consecrated satire, and the poets of the age followed this tradition. Satire is, — therefore, everywhere, and the poets, the dramatists and prose-writers all alike indulge in it.

Satire bulks large in the works of Dryden and Alexander Pope (1688-1744). John Dryden began his satiric career quite early in life. He made his mark as a satirist with the publication of Absalom and Achitophel in 1651. It was followed in quick succession by the Medal; Mac Fleckone; and Absalom and Achitophel in part II, written in collaboration with Nahum Tate.

‘The Work of Dryden fixed for several generations the course of English satire” (Hugh Walker). Dryden perfected the Heroic Couplet. Dryden gave to his followers a fitting medium for satire and in his satirical portraits he set an example which was followed by all those who took part in political controversies. The satires put him at the head and front of the English men of letters. From this time forward there could be no doubt at all of his position, with no second at any moderate distance” (Saintsbury). He began with writing a Toy pamphlet and within a very short time became the supreme satirist of England. He imparted epic grandeur and sublimity to political satire which in the hands of his contemporaries was coarse and brutal.

Next in order of merit among Restoration satirists is Samuel Butler (1612-1680). He was a Royalist and in his powerful satire Hudibras, he has satirized Puritanism in what may be called doggerel verse, largely on the pattern of the comic doggerel of Skelton. The learned author of Hudibras modeled his style very largely upon Skelton, whose methods and spirit contribute much to the making of Hudibras.

Alexander Pope is another great satirist. The Rape of the Lock is Pope’s first satire. It is a social satire as well as a mock epic. It is a mocking poem in which Pope mocks not only at the “little unguarded follies” of the fair sex, but at the artificial social life of 18th century London as a whole. The fashion, the artificiality, the vanity and frivolity of the age is exposed and ridiculed. The pierce sparkles in every line. The touch is never too heavy; an air of gay good humour is preserved throughout.

The Moral Essays and Satires and Epistles are the final and crowing efforts of the poet’s satiric genius. They contain his finest workmanship as satirist and will be ever read with more pleasure than the Dunciad. In the Epistle to Mr. Fortesque, Pope boldly satirizes corruption in high places. We know that Pope never flattered, like Dryden, and that he was much more independent “Unplaced, unpensioned, no mans heir or slave, he was never afraid to write with exemplary fearlessness; he lashes vice and fosters virtue.”

The greatest of prose satire in the English language belongs to this age. Satire is all-pervasive in the Spectator Papers of Joseph Addison (1672-1719) and Richard Steele (1672-1729). Their satire is mild and gentle. A number of follies and frivolities of the day are held up to ridicule by Addison, his purpose always being to reform and improve. Like Steele, he deals mainly with fashions in dress and with feminine frivolities and probably nowhere does he pass judgment as stern as that of Steele on the coquette. But neither does he show that warmth of admiration which is so conspicuous in Steele. For him the trivialities are the very soul of woman. Patches, the towering headdress, the hoop-petticoat, the fan and other things of that sort take up a far larger share of Addison’s treatment of women than that of Steele. “An empty life directed by an empty head and a shallow heart” such is the impression he leaves.

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) is the greatest of prose satirists in the English language. Although Swift was something provoked into exposing the individual, his satire is more often general than personal. A Tale of a Tub is one of those books which it is more fun to write than to read. It is obviously characteristic of the Rabelaisian side of Swift, but it is not at all typical of his satire as a whole, Compared with the Argument against Abolishing of Christianity or Gulliver’s Travels or the Modest Proposal where Swift holds to his theme with an undeviating sense of relevance. A Tale of a Tub is an undisciplined and self-indulgent work. It does however, by its very waywardness and provocative individuality, bring home to us the distinctive nature of Swift’s humour.

In the Battle of the Books the satire is both general and personal. This is a highly successful exercise in belittlement, effectively ridiculing a literary controversy. Swift’s aim here is almost purely destructive; his intention is much more to expose Bentley and Wotten than to take sides with the Ancients against the Moderns. He does, it is true, pronounce upon the issue In the fable of the spider and the bee but his essential purpose is to make the whole controversy appear trivial, a mere battle of the books.

Swift’s best satire is Gulliver’s Travels which is, on its face; a book of travels to strange lands of pygmies, giants, and horses, Swift’s purpose was to expose the vices and follies of mankind by ridiculing them. Man is reduced to the shortness of the Lilliputians or magnified into the gross Brondlingangians, or contrasted with the equine virtue of the Honyhnhnms. The effectiveness of such a satire depends on the invention with which these strange worlds are made plausible and the precision with which the irony makes evident the likeness between the real world and the imaginary. So successful was Swift’s invention that ever since the book was published, children have read the voyages to Lilliput and Brobdingnag as fairy stories, without worrying about the satire. So effective is the irony that Gulliver’s Travels remains one of the most appealing exposures of human weaknesses.

💅Recap
The Augustan Age (18th century) in English literature witnessed a significant rise in the spirit of satire, characterized by sharp criticism and wit, aiming to reform society's vices and follies.

💅Key points of the rise of satire from John Dryden to Dr. Johnson include:

👉John Dryden (1631-1700):

Pioneered satire in the Restoration period, focusing on political and social issues.
His satirical works, like "Absalom and Achitophel," targeted political figures and exposed corruption.
Employed allegory and irony to convey his messages effectively.
👉Alexander Pope (1688-1744):

Mastered the use of the heroic couplet in satire, providing a smooth and impactful reading experience.
His "The Rape of the Lock" humorously mocked the frivolous society of his time.
Employed wit and mock-heroic elements to highlight the vanity and shallowness of the aristocracy.
👉Jonathan Swift (1667-1745):

Known for his savage and biting satire, he used allegory to criticize political and societal issues.
"Gulliver's Travels" remains a classic satirical work, mocking human nature and institutions through imaginative voyages.
👉Samuel Johnson (1709-1784):

Contributed to the development of moral and ethical satire in the later Augustan period.
"The Vanity of Human Wishes" satirized human desires and ambitions, showcasing the imperfections of humanity.
His periodical "The Rambler" contained moral essays laced with satire, reflecting his moralistic views.

👉The Augustan Age witnessed satire's evolution into a powerful tool for social commentary, aiming to reform society's shortcomings.
👉Satirical works from this era continue to be appreciated for their wit, humor, and insight into human behavior and society's flaws.

Ref:
1. A history of English literature : Buchan, John, 1875-1940 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. Retrieved March 21, 2017, from https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00buch
2. A history of English literature : Compton-Rickett, Arthur, 1869-1937 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. Retrieved March 21, 2017, from https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00comp
3. A Short History Of English Literature : E Legouis : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. Retrieved March 21, 2022, from https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.182574

William Wordsworth Reacted Sharply and Sought to Increase the Range Of English Poetry through Rustic Characters and Their Language



The poetry of the Pseudo-classical school was very artificial and unnatural. It was extremely limited in its themes. It was confined exclusively to the city of London and in that city to the artificial and unnatural life of the fashionable lords and ladies. It did not care for the beauties of nature or for the humanity-farmers shepherds, wood cutters etc. Who live its simple life in the lap of nature? Wordsworth reacted sharply and sought to increase the range of English poetry by taking his themes from humble and rustic life, himself living in the lap of nature, was well familiar with the life of the humble people, and he has rendered it in his poetry, realistically and accurately.

Justifying Emergence of Poetic Drama in the 20th Century: A Critical Overview



After the Restoration dramatists drama in English seems to have gone into hibernation, if it had not died altogether. There were at least two dramatists of great calibre in the closing years of the 19th century. Bernard Shaw and Oscar Wilde, but both of them steadfastly choose prose as the medium of their plays. The 20th century saw some powerful influence that exerted themselves on the drama, the influence of the great continental dramatists, and that of the Irish dramatic movement. It was, however, left to T. S. Eliot to rehabilitate poetic drama and place it on a sound footing.

There were several considerations which contributed to the emergence of poetic drama in the 20th century. There were at least a dozen factors which cumulatively worked in this direction. In the first place the prejudice against theatre going began to disappear. There was also, some relaxation in the rigour of censorship. Also there was a steady rise in the standards of judgment, due to the spread of education an increasing margin of leisure in the life of ordinary man and woman; a deepening conviction that a certain amount of recreation is the natural right of every human being. But the greatest factor of all is undoubtedly the change in the dramatist himself. The modern dramatist takes the drama seriously. His purpose is interpretation of life, and play-writing has become an art as well as a craft, of course all these factors worked for the revival of drama as a whole and not of poetic drama exclusively.

Poetic drama was a genre which evolved rather slowly. The first dramatists to make an impact were those who wrote prose. The writers, avoided poetic drama because it was unsuited to their temperament, but partly also because it did not accord with the themes they wanted to exploit, mainly the themes of social and economic import. They patronized a drama which was mainly a drama of wit. This also went well with the public demand for greater realism in treatment. However this over insistences on reality was bound to create its own creation in course of time and it was this reaction which was one of the factors which were conducive to the growth and evolution of poetic drama in England. Although there is a deep infusion of poetry in the plays of Ibsen, especially in his later plays, the qualities of dramas which were to influence other writers were not these, but his employment of greater realism and directness in the exploration of social problems. It was T. S. Eliot who argued that poetic drama is capable of being, used for exploring a large variety of themes which are outside of the scope of prose drama. 

The first to be explored was the reason why poetic drama could not meet with success in the 19th century attempted writing poetic drama, including such great names as Shelley, Browning and Tennyson, Eliot pointed out the fact that 19th century dramatists were either poets without any knowledge of the stage and its requirements, or men well-versed in stage craft but without a grain of poetry in them. In addition to this fundamental drawback, there was also the fact that 19th century drama tended to be of a miscellaneous character. Moreover, as Eliot and others pointed out convincingly, the failure of these dramatists was also assuredly the fact that they copied a wrong model.

Shakespeare, The most baneful aspect of the influence of Shakespeare was blank, verse, all whose possibilities were almost exhausted by him, so that those who wrote in blank verse at best produced pale imitations of his style.

19th century drama also failed because of the fact that dramatist were in most cases obsessed with the idea producing a great tragedy of the magnitude of King Lear. Both by percept and by example T. S. Eliot established the superiority of poetic drama over his prose counterpart.

Poetic drama is that kind of drama which generally written in poetry, but night be written in prose the prose which reads like poetry. It is not the medium of expression, but the spirit of the play which is the differential of poetic drama. Thus Synge’s ‘Riders to the Sea’, one of the best poetic dramas of modern times is written in prose. Let us now look at some of the characteristics of poetic drama.

Poetic drama deals with the essence of life-unchanging spiritual reality of life, in contradiction to prose drama which deals with the outermost reality prose drama gives an initiation of -the ready-made boot of existence as exactly as it can while the poetic drama speaks to intimate the core of life. Milton’s ‘Samson Agonistes’ records the essence of the religious thought of the century. Macbeth dramatizes the essence of human experience which is “sin recoils on the sinner.”
Poetic drama does not seek to diagnose the disease of life, and suggest cures: At least it does not attempt of satire the hesitancy of minds distracted by the problems that beset human life. Rather it is characterized by an escape from the problems of the contemporary society. Modern poetic drama arose out of the reaction against the obsession of the so-called problem plays with the problems of society. The great plays of Shakespeare, John Drinkwater, W. B. Yeats, Synge and T. S. Eliot have nothing to do with the ills - the rich, hurry and divided aims of modern life. The poetic plays generally deal with the themes distant in time and space. ‘Riders to the Sea’ treats the tragic life of the fisherman and peasants who live far-away from the vicious current of modern civilization. Yeats’ ‘The Countess Cathleen’ gives a poetical treatment of peasant life and the world of spiritual presences.

The characters of poetic dramas are themselves poetry. They are characters which, compared with ours hence undergone a certain powerful simplification and exaggeration So that primary impulse and being are more evident in what they do and say there in   speech and action of actuality’s affairs. In other words, in the characters of the poetic drama such promo vial traits of human being as motherly sentiment courage, nobility, ambition, emotional intensity and the like are described exaggeratedly. The characters of the poetic drama are much more vehement, emotional and impressive than the persons we come across in everyday life. The whole effect of the presence of such characters is obviously to give an exhibition of life intensified, life supposed at a higher pressure than actuality. In Macbeth ambition becomes predominant as to swallow up all other human traits such as pity, mercy and sense of duty. His whole being is actuated by ambition which becomes a master passion with him. In Synge’s ‘Riders to the Sea’ Maurya is the very embodiment of motherly feeling. She left no stone unturned to secure her sons against the all devouring teeth of sea but un fortunately she is ultimately left with no son living. When all is over with her, when Bartley, her last surviving son is dead, she remains grand and heroic like Macbeth. She says: “No man at all can be living for ever, and we must be satisfied.” Maurya like Macbeth and Eliot’s Becket or Shaw’s Joan may be rightly said to live an intensified life-life supposed at a higher pressure than actuality.

Emotion predominates in the life of the characters of poetic drama. It is the emotion which stirs their whole being, and shapes their utterance. Even when they talk on day-to-day affair or describe an ordinary object of nature they were emotional.

A sharp controversy rages as to the medium of expression in poetic drama, and this controversy will continue till the doomsday despite all the titanic efforts of T. S. Eliot to solve the controversy. Letting the controversy alone we might say that poetry is the best medium of expression for a poetic play, the very nature of the poetry. The characters are conceived on a highly emotional plane, and the primary impulses of being are strongly marked in their life such characters hardly help speaking in poetry.

The intensified life which Shakespeare’s Macbeth or Eliot’s Beckett lives can be expressed adequately in poetry. But the modern age in not so fully prepared to welcome poetry as the medium of the dramatic expression as had been the age of Shakespeare. J. M. Synge is great and perhaps the best of the modern poetic playwrights by virtue of his evolving new medium which, is prose, but has all the emotional intensity and imagination colouring of poetry and which is more closely in accord with the spirit of his age.

💪Key points justifying the emergence of poetic drama in the 20th century include:

👉Rebellion against Realism: Poetic drama challenged the dominance of realism in theater, offering a departure from mundane representations of everyday life.
👉Symbolism and Subjectivity: Poetic drama allowed playwrights to explore deeper psychological and emotional themes, employing symbolism and subjective experiences.
👉Experimentation with Language: Playwrights experimented with language, creating rich and evocative poetic dialogues that heightened the theatrical experience.
👉Spiritual and Metaphysical Themes: Poetic drama delved into spiritual and metaphysical questions, exploring existential dilemmas and philosophical concepts.
👉Influence of Symbolist Movement: The Symbolist movement in literature inspired many playwrights to infuse their works with symbolism and evocative imagery.
👉Reimagining Classical Elements: Poetic drama often drew inspiration from ancient Greek and Shakespearean works, reimagining classical elements in modern contexts.
👉Expression of Inner Realities: This form of drama allowed for a deeper exploration of characters' inner worlds and emotions, transcending the limitations of realistic representation.
👉Breaking Theatrical Conventions: Poetic drama challenged traditional theatrical norms, incorporating elements of music, dance, and visual arts to create a more immersive experience.

👌The emergence of poetic drama in the 20th century marked a significant shift in theatrical aesthetics, encouraging experimentation, and fostering a deeper connection between language, emotion, and the human experience.

👌Playwrights like T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats, and Federico García Lorca were instrumental in popularizing poetic drama, leaving a lasting impact on the evolution of theater.


References

A history of English literature : Buchan, John, 1875-1940 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00buch

An outline history of English literature : Hudson, William Henry, 1862-1918 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/outlinehistoryof00hudsuoft

William Wordsworth Not Only Democratized But Revolutionized English Poetry: Critical Overview of Preface to "Lyrical Ballads"


"Every great and original writer, in proportion as he is great and original, must himself create the taste by which he is to be relished."
William Wordsworth (1770 - 1850)

Wordsworth was the chief spokesman of the Romantic Movement. His Preface to Lyrical Ballads says M.H. Abraham has been one of the most discussed and influential of all critical essays. “In the preface Wordsworth tried to overflow the basic theory, as well as the practice of non-classical poetry and also sought to defend and justify the new kind of poetry that he himself and Coleridge were writing.”

Post Chaucerian Barrenness in English Literature



The literature of the fifteenth century is comparatively barren in production, and there are no any poets or prose-writer in consequence. There is a steep decline in poetry even in the hands of the English and Scottish Chaucereans. By that time that freshness of Chaucer, in the fields of characterization; narration and versification was come to an end. Chaucer’s great name and fame disciples like Lydgate, Langland, Dunbar, Skelton, Occleve, Barclay, Hawes etc. were also unable to keep the freshness of poetry   of their master. There is a marked decadence in style. In Chaucer’s great disciples the spirit of poetic imagination and phrasings always lacked. Their metres were merely decrial: Compared with master, their works seemed sheer childish. In the sphere of prose there is a little progress, though the prose of the fifteenth century is better man the prose of the preceding age. Several factors are responsible for the barrenness of literary production in this age.

William Shakespeare’s “Measure For Measure” as a Dark Comedy With The Deus Ex Machina Dramatic Functionary Of Duke



Measure for Measure is one of the dark comedies or problem plays of Shakespeare. In this group of plays, we find Shakespeare confronted with some practical problems of life— generally with the problem of evil in daily life—and we find him also trying for a comic solution but not often getting it. As a result, the comedy gets rather dark and an atmosphere of cynicism seems to emerge. In the present play, the thesis seems to build up around the problem of combining authority with mercy and justice for the purpose of eradicating the evils of a corrupt society.

Despite of Learning Mother Tongue Prioritized In the System of Education, English L2 Occupy the Most Important Place in the Learning System


“There are many who understand Greek and Latin, and yet are ignorant of their Mother Tongue.”
John Dryden (1631 - 1700)
English poet, playwright, and literary critic.
Sylvae (translation of Horace's Odes)

The system of learning English or any other foreign language after learning the mother tongue is justified or not is much debated.  The controversial subject needs to be cleared on the sequence of learning mother tongue and foreign language in more psychological analysis.  Although many century linguists strove to make their own mother dialects the basis for a standard language, attempts were also made to work out a general   tongue. Literature, however, languished in dominant language until the late   century, when signs of a marginalized language literary revival developed—in reaction to the dominant language, which had become rivaling, control over other languages.

Musical and Lyrical Elements in Rabindranath Tagore’s “Gitanjali” (Song Offerings)


Rabindranath Tagore once declared that his own country would best remember him for his songs, and indeed he is seen by an over whelming majority of his countryman not merely as a poet  but doubled with a singer. The essentially musical charter of the lyrics in Gitanjali was clearly indicated by the title which Tagore gave to the English version Songs Offerings. The pieces included in it were prose renderings of a selection of poems from the Bengali Gitanjali, Naividya, kheya, Gitimalya –all titles which reveal the song –like character of the poems. The accent in all these anthologies is as much on the music as on the poetry. As K.R.S Iyengar says; “the stillness is suddenly disturbed by a dance of rhythm; the ear is charmed and enraptured, there is a quick passage through the doors of sensibility and the chords reach the soul’s sanctuary at last.” This is evident even is the translation, though many feel that Tagore defies translation into English even when the attempt is made by the author himself. 

Rustic Characters of Thomas Hardy are the Son of Soils and Full of Life in "The Return of the Native" as if Descendants of Shakespeare’s Rustic Characters


 The peasants in the novels of Hardy may be regarded as the chorus. We meet these rustic characters in "The Return of the Native "(Fairway, Christian, Grandfer Cantle, and the rest), "Far from the Madding Crowd" (Joseph Poorgrass, Henry Fray, Billy Smalibury, Jan Coggan), and so on. They cannot be compared with the central figures in the drama, because they are placed in the story to provide a chorus. They always appear in a group, seldom separately. They are not full-length portraits. 

Moreover, they are drawn in a different convention. Here Hardy is in the straight tradition from Shakespeare. These rustic characters are the direct descendants of Bottom and Dogberry and the rustics who gather in response to Falstaff’s call to arms at the house of Justice Shallow, and are made up of a few strongly marked, deliberately caricatured personal idiosyncrasies. Rich fragments of rusticity, they are as entertaining as any of the classic comic characters of Fielding or Goldsmith. But, unlike theirs and like Shakespeare’s, they can also stir serious emotion. Mrs. Cuxsom’s account of a death has the same pathos and eloquence as Dame Quickly’s account of Falstaff’s death.


Response to the Military Heroism in G. B. Shaw’s “Arms and the Man”


Military Heroism regards a soldier as a superhuman being above the ordinary weaknesses, moved entirely by noble impulses Patriotism and self sacrifice, utter disregard of life, and strive for honour and honour only—these are the traits of Military Heroism. Military Heroism is the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in literary works such as great epics or poems. Survival in the Face of Mass Destruction of War is in fact the goal in being a soldier and that there is s no such unified political or national response to the Military Heroism.

Shaw thinks that this view is the view of home sweet home who have never been to the battle front. In reality, a soldier is a man like any other man. War is his profession. A true soldier is not anxious to fling away his life, but he adopts all means to save it. The hero Bluntschli climbs a waterpipe and enters a lady’s bed-room in order to save his life. He does no jump to the mouth of the cannon like Sergius who, he say, should be court-martialled for this act of tomfoolery.



A true hero is a coward at heart as much as any of us. Even Sergius who displays heroic bravado in the beginning ultimately exclaims—“Soldiering is the coward’s act of attacking mercilessly when you are strong and keeping out of harm ’s way when you are weak. That is the whole secret of successful fighting. Get your opponent at a disadvantage never, never fight on equal terms”.

However, we do read about people taking Military Heroism with being sure about water, food, and comfort. Since the war destroys real families, resources and homes, the soldiers of war are forced to come together and make a new kind of reality. Shaw’s ideas might seem fantastically unreal or cynically unnatural. But Shaw asserts that competent military authority will bear testimony to these unromantic facts. The so-called Military Heroism is the invention of civilians; it lives in imagination only.

Ardhendu De

The Teaching of William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar: How the Caesar and the Brutus of Shakespeare Differed from the Caesar and the Brutus of History?


  Introduction:

 Teachers of English should be on intimate terms with the masterpieces they are expected to teach. They ought to have a clear idea of the action of the play, and mental pictures of the various scenes and characters. They should be familiar with the fine lines; should be able to quote what is worthwhile; and should appreciate the diction, the wealth of allusion, and the various other literary qualities that combine to produce style. These things come through careful and loving study of a masterpiece and this is also true for the teaching of William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar. In fact, since its first production, Julius Caesar has enjoyed immense and enduring popularity. The play forms part of the repertoire of most Shakespearean stock companies. A notable production, with the actors in modern dress, was directed by Orson Welles for the Work Projects Administration (WPA) in 1937. There have been several motion picture productions of Julius Caesar as well as a number of television presentations. Teaching of such a classic really needs a scholastic approach from a teacher’s perspective.

Rasa School of Thought in Indian Poetics: Aphorism of Bharatamuni and Other Sages


 “From the conjunction of Vibhãvas, Anubhãvas and Vyabhicaribhãvas Rasa are produced.”- 
Bharatamuni’s Natyasastra

 The principle of Rasa is the very kernel of Indian Poetics. Rasa is the essence of literature. The outlines of the nature of poetry appeared in Bharatamuni’s Natyasastra. Bharata says, “From the conjunction of Vibhãvas, Anubhãvas and Vyabhicaribhãvas Rasa are produced.” Just as persons, mentally peaceful, while eating food mixed with various kinds of condiments taste and derive pleasure and the like, so also spectators with calm minds taste the Sthyibhãvas spiced with various kinds of emotions enacted and combined with verbal, physical and Sãttvika acting and derive pleasure. Bharata’s aphoristic statement “Vibhavanubhavayabhicarisamayogidrasanishpattih” has been discussed at length by good many scholars. Of these Bhattalollata, Srisankuta, Bhattanayaka and Abhinavagupta deserve special mention. They will be discussed separately in this short critical essay.


How Does Divine Human Form Relate To The Theme Of William Blake's "The Divine Image"?



William Blake was one of the greatest poets of the Romantic age and a protest against oppression which also becomes an aspect of Blake’s religious faith. His The Divine Image   glorifies the innocence of human being as in the grand design of God.


The poem The Divine Image   is from Songs of Innocence and is written in the ballad metre. It expresses Blake’s faith in man as being an embodiment of all the divine qualities. This being so, the poet feels that man must love his fellow-beings just as he loves God, Love for man alone, believed Blake  could bring man closer to God and create paradise on earth.

Critical Appreciation of Robert Frost’s Poem “Birches”


The poem ‘Birches’ was first published in the Atlantic Monthly in August 1915. In this poem we come across the poet’s desire to withdraw from the world as also his love of the earth as symbolized by the boy’s game of swinging birches.

Frost’s central subject is humanity. His poetry lives with particular aliveness because it expresses living people. Other poets have written about people. But Robert frost’s poems are of the people; they work, and they walk about, and converse, and tell their tales with the freedom of common speech. “Birches” is among Frost best-known piece and has acquired wide popularity. What places the poem on a distinctly high level of appeal is the true and broad humanity running throughout the poem. In the background of the swinging birches, the imaginary boy’s behaviour and utterances acquire a philosophical depth and wisdom. The central thought of this poem is that the poet dreams of becoming a swinger o birches once again in his life as he was during his boyhood. Since the poet is weary of considerations that his life involves, he wants to become a swinger of birches at least for the time being but it does not mean that he wanted to escape from his life on earth. It is not the feeling of escapism that forms the central thought of “Birches” but love for the earth. Although the poet may like to withdraw from the cares and anxieties of the life on the earth, he cannot entertain the idea of relinquishing the earth forever. Frost was no mystic and perhaps no poem is more expressive of his thought than Birches .Elizabeth Jennings has pointed out, ‘in Birches he declares “Earth the right place for love,” and goes on to describe his own preponderance for the immediate tangible world, and his ability to manage without too much consideration of transcendental things.
“Climb black branches up a snow-white trunk
Toward heaven, till the tree could bear no more.
But dipped its top and set me down again.”

The way in which the theme is rendered is dramatic. The sudden shifts in the imagery and the warmth of the humanly element in it give the poem a dramatic force and intensity. However the poem cannot be describe as a dramatic monologue, despite the dramatic the theme is treated here in elaborate canvas. “Birches” is one of those poems in which we find a sustained movement of sense, feeling and rhythm from beginning to end. Brower has rightly remarked about “Birches” and “The Census-Taker” ‘Frost offers a sure standard of achieved form in poetry of talk in an extended nature lyric Birch or in a country walker’s narrative like “The Census-Taker”.’ The evolution of feeling and reflection in these poems is carried forward unerringly through masterly variation of blank verse rhythm. Both poems start from vivid perceptions of natural or at least country things and both dramatize a person discovering new meanings or new puzzles in that situation.” The poem “Birches” begins in the tune of easy conversation.
“When I see birches bend to left and right
 Across the lines of straighter darker trees,
I like to think some boy’s been swinging them.”

Some critics like Alvarez deny Frost the title of “nature poet” and would regard him as rural or country poet. Undoubtedly Robert Frost’s poetry has an agrarian bias to is the poetry of a countryman for the countryman. “He is a country poet, whose business is to live with nature rather than through it.” He wishes to carry us off to agrarian world from the choking modern city. He is essentially a poet of pastures and plains, mountains and rivers, woods and gardens, groves and bowers, fruits and flowers, seeds and birds. To him “Wood are lovely, dark and deep and Earth’s the right place for love:
“I don’t know where it’s likely to go better.
l’dlike to go by climbing a birch tree,
And climb black branches up a snow-white trunk
Toward heaven, till the tree could bear no more
But dipped its top and set me down again.”

Frost has a tendency to philosophize but is free from didacticism. It has been explained by Lewis in these words, “He is a serious moralist as well as a serious artist But his peculiar intimacy with nature prevents him from being openly didactic: He teaches, like nature, in parables: sometimes merely presenting a picture, a mood, a narrative, and leaving you to draw your own conclusions, never permitting himself more than the tender, humorous sort of comment we find at the end of ‘Birches’:
“ I’d likoe to get away from earth a while
And then come back to it and begin over.
may no fate wilfully misunderstand me
And half grand what I wish and snatch me away
Not to return. Earth’s the right place for love
I don’t know where it’s likely to go better.”

The language used is usually simple and clear. Some of its lines have epigrammatic force and terseness. The poem is remarkable for the poet’s mastery over blank verse too. The poem is written in a very simple and clear language and conversational style. Some of its line shaves epigrammatic force and terseness.

The poem consists of a series of beautiful pictures of nature and of man, and each sketch is hit off in a few happy touches, and is complete in itself. The swinging of the birches tossed by the ice-storms, and looked on at by a boy, in the early hours of the day, till
“the sun’s warmth makes them shed crystal shells.
Shattering and avalanching ont he snow-crust-
Such heaps of broken glass to sweep away
You’d think the inner dome of heaven had fallen.”

makes a genuine appeal. It is a striking picture of nature and of man rendered in terms of prominent imagery, an imagery that combines both fact and fancy. The second picture in the poem is that of the trees with “their trunks arching in the woods”. The ruffled atmosphere of the swinging birches is compared here to -
“girls on hands and knees that throw their hair.
Before them over their heads to dry in the sun.”

There is a striking between the images, arching trees and the girls in disheveled hair, and each image renders the other more prominent. In the main the poem seems to be narrative or descriptive in intent. The philosophical statement at the end of the poem serves as finale to a series of picture which are significant for their shrewd turns.”

C.D. Lewis makes the following comment on its rhythm - the upward and downward movement of the rhythm fully reflects the going upto and coming down of the swinger of birches. But when the poet moralizes the rhythm becomes slow.”

About the imagery of the poem Prof. Saxena writes “The crystal ice becomes heaps of broken glass which is compared to the inner dome of heaven. The arched trees are transformed into girls on hands and knees - the girls who throw their hair before them over their heads to dry in the sun. The country boy ‘whose only play was what he found himself’, riding and subduing his father’s birches becomes the mature poet. One has just to quote a few lines to show the vividness and power of Frost’s imagery:
“Soon the sun’s warmth makes them shed crystal shells
Shattering and avalanching on the snow-crust
Such heaps of broken glass away
You’d think the inner dome of heaven had fallen”

Frost does not see the country with the eyes of the carefree vagabond or the city stick romantic who finds it as charming and refreshing as a new mistress. He has for it rather the understanding, slightly quizzical look a man given the wife of him bosom.

It is no spirit of nature which sends Frost’s rain or wind; he neither sees in the natural world the pervading spirit Wordsworth saw.... the mountain is not a personality as it is for Wordsworth in the “Prelude” and in other poems” Frost did not idealize or glorify the objects of nature. He saw them as things with which and on which man acts in course of the daily work of gaining a livelihood. He rarely makes his lessen or his philosophy of nature as overt and obvious as Wordsworthian simplicity of style in his descriptions of Nature. In his poem Birches, we find Frost’s capacity for minute description and accurate description at their best and the opening lines of the poem are a characteristic example of the same. He gives here a smile, concrete description of the “habits” of birches and the changes wrought upon them by wind and ice storms. Young boys who swing on them.
“When I see briches bend to heft and right
Across the linesof straighter darker trees,
I like to think some boy’s been swinging them.
But swinging does’t bend them down to stay.
Loaded with ice a sunny winter morning
After a rain They click upon themselves
As the breezae rises, and turned many-coloured
As the stir cracks and crazes their enamel.
Soon the sun’s warmth makes them shed crystal shells”

Frost’s accuracy of description is, accompanied by delicacy of feeling aid imagination.. In the words of Untermever, “Birches”, one of Robert Frost’s most widely quoted poems, beautifully illustrates the poet’s power, the power to blend observation and imagination. He begins in tone of easy conversation:
“When I see briches bend to left and right
Across the lines of starighter darker trees…”

and them, without warning or change of tone, the reader is arrested by a whimsical image, and the fact turns into a fancy. “I like to think some boy’s been swinging them. Fact and fancy play together throughout the poem. The crystal ice becomes heaps of broken glass. “You’d think the inner dome of heaven had fallen.” The arched trees are transformed into girls on hands and knees “That how their hair before them over their heads to dry in the sun.” The country boy, whose only play was what he found himself, “riding and subduing his father’s birches, becomes the mature poet who announces:
“Earth’s the right place for love;
I don’t know where it’s likely to go better.”

Though Frost is regarded preeminently as a poet of nature, man holds a more important place in his poetry than nature. Forst himself was conscious of the fact when he said, ‘I guess I’m not a nature poet have written two poems without a human being in them.” Contrasting Frost’s attitude towards nature with that of Wordsworth's Murion Montgomery has rightly pointed out, From the publication of "A Boy’s Will down" to the present time Frost has indicated a realization that man can serve important part of this Universe.

Ardhendu De

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