Derrida’s Theory of Deconstruction: Plurality of Significance


French philosopher Jacques Derrida shows that text can be read as saying something quite different from what it appears to be saying, and that it may read as carrying a plurality of significance or as saying many different things which are fundamentally at variance with, contradictory to and subversive of what may be seen by criticism as a single, stable ‘meaning’. Thus, a text may ‘betray’ itself. A deconstructive criticism of a text revels that there is nothing except the text. In of Grammatology, Derrida makes the now well-known axial proposition that this is so (his key words are 'il n’y a rien hors due texte’, or alternatively, iln’y a pas de hors-texte’). That is, one can not evaluate criticism or construe a meaning for a text by reference to anything external to it.

Thus, Jacques Derrida's theory of deconstruction is a method of textual analysis that seeks to reveal the hidden meanings and contradictions within a text. Derrida argues that all texts are unstable and open to multiple interpretations, and that the meaning of a text is never fixed or definitive.

Derrida carries his logic still further to suggest that the language of any discourse is at variance with itself and, by so being is capable of being read as yet language. Derrida’s work focused on language. He contended that the traditional, or metaphysical, way of reading makes a number of false assumptions about the nature of texts. A traditional reader believes that language is capable of expressing ideas without changing them, that in the hierarchy of language writing is secondary to speech, and that the author of a text is the source of its meaning. Derrida's deconstructive style of reading subverted these assumptions and challenged the idea that a text has an unchanging, unified meaning.

Jacques Derrida
The internal stage of Derrida’s deconstructive theory is the contention that both speech and writing are signifying processes which lack ‘presence’. Derrida destabilizes and displaces the traditional ‘hierarchy’ (he calls it a ‘violent hierarchy’) of speech over writing to suggest that speech can only ever be subject to the same instabilities as writing; that speech and writing are forms of one science of language, grammatology. This is not a reversal of the priority, since Plato, of speech over writing but a displacement which produces a state of ‘indeterminacy’.Drawing on psychoanalysis and linguistics, Derrida questioned this traditional approach to texts and the assumption that speech is a clear and direct method of communication. As a result, he insisted, the author’s intentions in speaking cannot be unconditionally accepted. Derrida’s approach multiplied the number of legitimate interpretations of a text. Derrida did not negate meaning, but he showed that there were many possible meanings that depended on the reader and the reader’s context as much as on the author.

One of the key concepts in Derrida's deconstruction is the idea of différance. Différance is a neologism that Derrida coined to refer to the "play of difference" that is always at work in language. Différance is not simply difference, but rather the difference that makes meaning possible. It is the difference between the signifier (the word or sign) and the signified (the concept or meaning that the word or sign represents).

Derrida argues that différance is always deferred, meaning that it is never fully present or complete. This is because the meaning of a word or sign is always dependent on other words or signs. For example, the meaning of the word "cat" is not simply the animal itself, but also the difference between "cat" and other words, such as "dog" or "mouse".

The concept of différance leads to the idea of the undecidable. The undecidable is a term that Derrida uses to refer to the moments in a text where the meaning is ambiguous or uncertain. These moments are often the most revealing, as they point to the instability of meaning and the play of difference within the text.

Deconstruction is a complex and challenging theory, but it has had a significant impact on the study of literature and philosophy. It has been used to deconstruct a wide range of texts, from literary works to philosophical treatises. Deconstruction has also been used to challenge the traditional ways of thinking about language, meaning, and truth.

The plurality of significance is one of the key insights of deconstruction. Derrida argues that texts can be read in multiple ways, and that there is no single, definitive meaning. This is because texts are always open to interpretation, and the meaning of a text can change depending on the reader's perspective.

Deconstruction can be a helpful tool for understanding the complexity of texts and the multiple meanings that they can contain. It can also be used to challenge the traditional ways of thinking about language and meaning. However, deconstruction is not without its critics. Some people argue that it is too abstract and difficult to understand, and that it can lead to a relativist view of meaning.

Despite these criticisms, deconstruction remains an important and influential theory in the study of literature and philosophy. It has helped to challenge the traditional ways of thinking about language and meaning, and it has opened up new possibilities for interpretation.

Key Knowledge of Derrida's theory of deconstruction:

  • All texts are unstable and open to multiple interpretations.
  • The meaning of a text is never fixed or definitive.
  • The meaning of a text is always dependent on other texts.
  • The meaning of a text is always deferred, meaning that it is never fully present or complete.
  • There are moments in a text where the meaning is ambiguous or uncertain, these are called the undecidables.
  • Deconstruction can be used to challenge the traditional ways of thinking about language, meaning, and truth.
  • Deconstruction can be a helpful tool for understanding the complexity of texts and the multiple meanings that they can contain.

Here are some examples of how deconstruction can be used to analyze a text:

  • One could deconstruct a poem by looking at the way the poet uses language to create meaning. For example, one might focus on the use of metaphors, similes, and other figures of speech.
  • One could deconstruct a novel by looking at the way the author constructs the plot, the characters, and the setting. For example, one might focus on the way the author uses symbolism or foreshadowing.
  • One could deconstruct a philosophical treatise by looking at the way the philosopher uses language to argue their point. For example, one might focus on the way the philosopher uses binary oppositions or relies on assumptions.
 Comparative Study:  
1. Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on arbitrariness of verbal signs.
2. Observations of Harold Bloom, J. Hillis Miller, Paul de Man, and Geoffrey Hartman.
3. Why controversial?


Ref: "Deconstruction." Britannica Student Library. Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2013.

Elements of Gothic Literature: Mystery and Horror


"The first thing that struck Manfred's eyes was a group of his servants endeavouring to raise something that appeared to him a mountain of sable plumes. He gazed without believing his sight. What are ye doing? cried Manfred, wrathfully: Where is my son? A volley of voices replied, Oh, my lord! the prince! the prince! the helmet! the helmet! Shocked with these lamentable sounds, and dreading he knew not what, he advanced hastily—But what a sight for a father's eyes!—He beheld his child dashed to pieces, and almost buried under an enormous helmet, an hundred times more large than any casque ever made for human being, and shaded with a proportionable quantity of black feathers."-

From The Castle of Otranto By Horace Walpole
A Gothic Story Chapter I

 Gothic literature , the setting for which was usually a ruined Gothic castle or abbey, is a type of romance very popular from the 1760s onwards until the 1820s. The Gothic novel, or Gothic romance, emphasized mystery and horror and was filled with ghost-haunted rooms, underground passages, and secret stairways. It has had a considerable influence of fiction since and is of much importance in the evolution of the ghost story and the horror story.

Mystery and horror are two of the defining elements of Gothic literature. These elements are often intertwined, creating a sense of suspense and dread in the reader.

Mystery is created by the introduction of unknown or unexplained elements into the story. This can include the presence of ghosts, supernatural creatures, or other supernatural forces. It can also be created by the withholding of information from the reader, such as the identity of the villain or the true nature of the events that are taking place.

Horror is created by the depiction of frightening or disgusting events or images. This can include violence, death, gore, or the supernatural. It can also be created by the use of suspense and tension, leaving the reader feeling on edge.

In addition to mystery and horror, other common elements of Gothic literature include:

A desolate or haunted setting: Gothic stories are often set in dark, gloomy places, such as old castles, abandoned mansions, or graveyards. These settings create a sense of isolation and foreboding, which can enhance the feeling of mystery and horror.

A strong female protagonist: Gothic stories often feature a strong female protagonist who is a victim of circumstance. She is often forced to overcome obstacles and face danger in order to survive.

The use of symbolism: Gothic stories often use symbolism to represent the characters' inner thoughts and feelings. For example, a dark forest might represent the protagonist's fear of the unknown, or a ghost might represent the protagonist's guilt or regret.

The use of melodrama: Gothic stories often use melodrama to create a sense of heightened emotion. This can be seen in the characters' exaggerated reactions to events, as well as the use of language and imagery that is designed to evoke strong emotions in the reader.

The principal writers of the English Gothic romance were Horace Walpole, author of The Castle of Otranto (1764); Clara Reeve, who wrote The Champion of Virtue (1777); Ann Radcliffe, author of The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794); Matthew Gregory Lewis, author of Ambrosio, or the Monk (1796); Charles Robert Maturin, who wrote The Fatal Revenge (1807); and Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, who wrote Frankenstein (1818). One of the earliest examples of Tobias Smollett’s Ferdinand Count Fathom (1753), very probably the first novel – a form then newly developed – to propose terror and cruelty as its main themes.

 Much better known than this is Horace Walpole’s The Castle of Otranto (1764), which he wrote in his house at Strawberry Hill, Twickonham, near London. Walpole (1717-97) settled there in 1747. He made his abode into a little Gothic cantle and established a private press. ‘Strawberry Hill Gothic’ becomes a common term for any example of romantic Gothicized architecture of the period. This was the era of the Gothic revival in architecture, brought about by a renewed and romantic interest in the medieval. Charles Brockden Brown, the first American professional novelist, is best known for his Gothic romances. The genre was one phase of the literary movement of romanticism in English literature and was also the forerunner of the modern mystery novel. Later American writers who used Gothic elements in their fiction include Henry James, William Faulkner, and Flannery O'Connor. The term Gothic is also used to designate narrative prose or poetry of which the principal elements are violence, horror, and the supernatural. Many of the works of the late-20th-century American novelists Stephen King and Anne Rice demonstrate the continued influence and popularity of the Gothic form.

Most Gothic novels are tales of mystery and horror, intended to chill the spine and curdle the blood. They contain a strong element of the supernatural and have all or most of the now familiar topography, sites props, presences and happenings: wild and desolate landscapes, dark forests, ruined abbeys, feudal halls and medieval castles with dungeons, secret passages, winding stairways, oubliette, sliding panels and torture chambers; monstrous apparitions and curses, a stupefying atmosphere of doom and gloom; heroes and heroines in the direst of imaginable straits, wicked tyrants, malevolent witches, demonic powers of unspeakably hideous aspect, and a proper complement of spooky effects and clanking specters…. The whole apparatus in fact that has the cinema and much third-rate fiction going for years, is to be found in these tales. The most popular sold in great quantities and they were read avidly. 

Gothic literature has been a popular genre for centuries, and it continues to be enjoyed by readers today. It is a genre that explores the darker side of human nature, and it can be both entertaining and thought-provoking.


References:

Gothic literature : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/gothicliterature0002unse_n1y2

Knowledge of Second Language: Advantage of Bilingual Uses :Different Techniques of Communicative Range



Time was when there was a fairly widespread belief that bilingualism was some kind of an aberration rather than a normal human condition. It was also believed that bilingualism was hindrance to learning development that bilingualism is not an obstacle or a burden; it is ‘rather, an enabling and enriching phenomenon. Knowing two or more languages rather than only one, not also makes the bilingual person more versatile in communicative and international terms, more open minded, more receptive to varied cultural conventions and customs and usages. Bilingualism also increases a person’s reach in terms of intimation and knowledge. All these have a far more important consequence, in that, by increasing a person’s receptivity, access and awareness, bilingualism also tends to make him / her more tolerant and open minded . As far as the question of bilingualism being a burden is concerned, studies have shown that bilingualism actually facilitates rather than hinders learning processes.

In cases when entire groups or communities are characterized by wide- spread bilingualism, i.e., the presence and use of two languages, there is a general tendency to allocate, different functional roles to the two languages. Thus the group may, by tacit consent, use one language for a set of function and the other language for a different set to be in some kind of a hierarchical order, one language may come to be regarded as ‘high’ and the other languages (used for day to day, ordinary activity) many come to be regarded as ‘low’. When such a situation obtains, the two languages are said to be in a ‘diagnostic’ relationship. In several cases, how ever, I and L2 operate in complementary roles and are (as in the case of Hindi and English) given equal value and respect. In cases of societal bilingualism, institutional support is given to the two languages and things are so structured and arranged as to provide equal opportunities for growth, spread and development of be in stable societal bilingualism.

Bilingualism simply is mastery of two languages. A person is bilingual if he or she knows two languages; a document or message is bilingual if it is presented in two languages. Bilingual education is teaching students in both their native language and the primary language of the culture. When two languages are learnt, spoken and used by individuals and whole groups of communities, they come to from a find of co-existent, system in the linguistic repertoire of bilinguals. The coexist and habitual use of the two languages may have the following consequences- 

Firstly, L1 and L2, due to mutual influence, may undergo structural change at the level of sound, syntax, vocabulary and Semitics.

Secondly, the two engages May, in due course of time and due to various sociohistorical  reasons, came to be viewed and evaluated differentially. One language may language of education, opportunity, prestige or status while the other may not be perceived to have these attributes.

Thirdly , due to herbicidal  use of L1 and L2 in different domains and situations, the bilingual uses of the two language  may begin it smith from L1 and L2 and vice verse or even to mix the two languages such switching and mixing may come of respectability and social acceptability and may, in fact, become a kind of new code/ language.

Fourthly, where institutional and educational support is given to L1 and L2 in a large measure, it may come to be viewed as an imposition an unwanted burden. It may also happen that the L2 is viewed as language of power, prestige and opportunity, leading to negative altitudes towards L1. In extreme case such a situation may lead to partial politics. The fact is L1 is epicenter Indian languages learning. However,   urban  L1 speakers of major Indian languages are also learning English( L2) as sociological perspectives demand. The increasing numbers of English Medium schools is the glaring example of it.

However, there are many advantages to being bilingual. Some of the most common advantages include:

Improved cognitive skills: Bilingualism has been shown to improve cognitive skills such as attention, memory, and problem-solving.
Increased brain plasticity: Bilingualism can help to increase brain plasticity, which is the brain's ability to change and adapt. This can be beneficial for learning new things and for preventing cognitive decline.
Enhanced creativity: Bilinguals may be more creative than monolinguals, as they are able to think about problems from different perspectives.
Improved job prospects: Bilingualism can be a valuable asset in the workplace, and it can open up job opportunities in international business, tourism, and education.
Greater cultural understanding: Bilinguals have a better understanding of different cultures, as they are exposed to different ways of thinking and communicating.
Enhanced social skills: Bilinguals may be better at communicating with people from different cultures, as they are more aware of the different ways that people communicate.

There are many different techniques that can be used to improve communicative range in a second language. Some of the most common techniques include:

Immersion: Immersion is the most effective way to improve communicative range. This can be done by living in a country where the second language is spoken, or by taking immersion classes.
Practice: The more you practice speaking and listening to the second language, the better you will become at it. Try to find opportunities to practice speaking with native speakers, or join a language learning group.
Repetition: Repetition is important for learning new vocabulary and grammar. Try to repeat new words and phrases aloud as often as possible.
Reading and writing: Reading and writing in the second language can help you to improve your understanding of the language and your ability to express yourself.
Listening to music and watching movies: Listening to music and watching movies in the second language can help you to improve your listening comprehension.
Using technology: There are many language learning apps and websites that can help you to improve your communicative range.

The best technique for improving communicative range will vary depending on the individual. However, all of the techniques listed above can be effective if used consistently.

It is important to note that there is no one-size-fits-all answer to this question, as the best way to improve communicative range will vary depending on the individual and their learning style. However, some general tips that may be helpful include:

Set realistic goals: Don't try to learn too much too quickly. Start with small, achievable goals and gradually increase your level of difficulty as you progress.
Be patient: Learning a new language takes time and effort. Don't get discouraged if you don't see results immediately.
Find a learning method that works for you: There are many different ways to learn a language. Experiment with different methods until you find one that you enjoy and that fits your learning style.
Don't be afraid to make mistakes: Everyone makes mistakes when they are learning a new language. Don't let this discourage you. The important thing is to keep practicing and learning from your mistakes.
Find opportunities to practice: The more you practice speaking and listening to the second language, the better you will become at it. Try to find opportunities to practice speaking with native speakers, or join a language learning group.
Be positive and motivated: Learning a new language can be challenging, but it is also a rewarding experience. Stay positive and motivated, and you will eventually reach your goals.

Let's Learn: 

1.What is lingua franca?
2.When does a pidgin language born?
3.How does a creole language step out? Give example.


References:

Second language learning theories : Mitchell, Rosamond, author : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/secondlanguagele0000mitc

Treatment of Social Realism or Issues in the Modern British Drama


"The foaming denouncers of the bourgeoisie, and the more-water-in-your-beer reformers of whom Shaw is the prototype."
-George Orwell Referring to George Bernard Shaw The Road to Wigan Pier
Literature, in general, and drama in particular shows some special characteristics of the present day tendencies in life and literature:
 (1) its reiteration of the old revolutionary formula of liberty, equality and fraternity in a new setting, 
(2) its worship of power rather than of beauty – here it parts company abruptly with the age of the romantic revival and Victorian age 
(3) its challenging attitude of the older values in art and life – the challenging attitude now is more persisting and more searching – (Compton Rickett).

 The new note of realism become more and more insistent and received a better welcome on the stage. The two men who became prominent were Henry Arthur Jones and Arthur Wing Pinero. Jones Arthur’s “It’s only Round the Corner” and “The Silver king”. His most notable plays were “Saints and Sinners” (1884), “the Dancing Girl” (1891), “The Case of Rebellious Susan” (1894). “The Triumph of the Phillistines” (1893), and “Michael and His Last Angle” (1896), “The Liars” (1897) and “Miss Dane’s Defence” also succeeded. Henry Arthur Jones's Mrs. Dane's Defense (1900) is most notable as an early realist problem play.

The play “The Liars” elaborates on the need to lie in a hypocritical society. Arthur Wing Pinero wrote two types: 
(1) the farce and 
(2) the social problem.

 Pinere proceeded to write a succession of social dramas highlighting the plight of woman in an unforgiving society, The Second Mrs. Tanqueray (1893) belongs to the latter. His “Trelaway of the Wells” (1898) is a nostalgic celebration of the mid-Victorian theatre. Pinero was a prolific writer of farces and comedies, but his melodramas dealing with ethical and social problems makes him an icon. The tendency of these writers is to follow Ibsen.

As Shaw says “What we might have learned from Ibsen was that our fashionable dramatic material was worm out as far cultivated modern people are concerned; that what really interacts such people on stage is not what we call action – meaning two well known and rather short-sighted actors pretending to fight dual without their glasses or a handsome leading man chasing beauteous leading lady round the stage with threats obviously not feasible of immediate rapine – but of lives discussion of conduct, unveiling motives, conflict of characters in talks, laying bare of souls, discovery of pitfalls – in short -illumination of Life”.

Thus, social realism is a literary and artistic movement that seeks to portray the lives of ordinary people in a realistic and unvarnished way. It emerged in the late 19th century in response to the growing social and economic problems of the industrial age.

In modern British drama, social realism has been used to explore a wide range of social issues, including poverty, unemployment, homelessness, crime, and social injustice. Some of the most famous examples of social realist drama include:
  • John Osborne's Look Back in Anger (1956): This play explores the anger and frustration of a young working-class man in post-war Britain.
  • Arnold Wesker's The Kitchen (1959): This play depicts the harsh working conditions and poverty of the kitchen staff in a large restaurant.
  • Shelagh Delaney's A Taste of Honey (1958): This play tells the story of a young working-class woman who becomes pregnant and struggles to raise her child on her own.
  • Alan Bennett's The History Boys (2004): This play explores the education system and the role of teachers in shaping young people's minds.
  • Caryl Churchill's Cloud Nine (1979): This play explores gender roles and sexual identity in a variety of settings, from the Victorian era to the present day.
Social realist drama has been praised for its realistic portrayal of the lives of ordinary people and for its ability to raise awareness of social issues. However, it has also been criticized for being too depressing and for lacking in hope.

Despite these criticisms, social realist drama remains an important and influential genre in modern British drama. It continues to be used to explore the social and political issues of our time, and it has the potential to challenge and change our perceptions of the world.

Key Points to Remember:

  • Social realism is a literary and artistic movement that seeks to portray the lives of ordinary people in a realistic and unvarnished way.
  • It has been used in modern British drama to explore a wide range of social issues, including poverty, unemployment, homelessness, crime, and social injustice.
  • Some of the most famous examples of social realist drama include Look Back in Anger, The Kitchen, A Taste of Honey, The History Boys, and Cloud Nine.
  • Social realist drama has been praised for its realistic portrayal of the lives of ordinary people and for its ability to raise awareness of social issues.
  • However, it has also been criticized for being too depressing and for lacking in hope.
  • The use of working-class characters and settings.
  • The focus on social problems such as poverty, unemployment, and homelessness.
  • The use of naturalism and realism to create a sense of authenticity.
  • The use of dialogue that reflects the speech patterns of ordinary people.
  • The use of plot and characters to explore social issues.

Ref: 
1. The Concise Cambridge History of English Literature
2. Microsoft Students’ Encarta Eric Bentley

Romantic Poetry of the Self or Mysticism: William Wordsworthian Manifesto of Literary Romanticism


"Romanticism is the art of presenting people with the literary works which are capable of affording them the greatest possible pleasure, in the present state of their customs and beliefs. 
Classicism, on the other hand, presents them with the literature that gave the greatest possible pleasure to their great-grandfathers."-Stendhal (1783 - 1842)French writer. Racine and Shakespeare

In the William Wordsworthian manifesto of literary romanticism it is affirmed the importance of feeling and imagination to poetic creation and disclaimed conventional literary forms and subjects. There is, however, issued the mysticism of great sensibility and passion. Speaking of mysticism Spurgeon observes that mysticism is a personal temper rather than a doctrine, an atmosphere rather than a system of philosophy. The fundamental basis of mysticism is an unshakable belief in an essential unity, oneness or likeness in all objects of nature and human beings created by the Almighty. 

William Wordsworth is considered one of the leading figures of the Romantic movement in England. His poetry is often characterized by its focus on the individual's experience of nature, its emphasis on emotion and imagination, and its use of simple language and imagery.

In his preface to the Lyrical Ballads (1798), Wordsworth famously declared that "poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility." This statement reflects Wordsworth's belief that poetry should be rooted in the poet's own personal experience, and that it should be written in a way that is both sincere and evocative.

Wordsworth's poetry often explores the relationship between the individual and nature. He believed that nature could be a source of inspiration and solace, and that it could help us to connect with our inner selves. In his poem "Tintern Abbey," Wordsworth writes about his childhood memories of the Wye Valley, and how these memories have helped him to find peace and tranquility.

The indissoluble bond that unifies all is the divine spark or spirit that permeates through all objects of His creation. There is God in brief in all animate and inanimate objects in the universe. There is one undivided changeless life in all lives and the One Inseparable in the separable. The soul is eternal though it may leave the body at its death; and all things are but forms and manifestations of God. 

It is the Advaita philosophy of Sri Sankara that Wordsworth propounds in England of the 19th century. The most typical presentations of acosmic pantheism come from the Hindu tradition, the greatest philosophical exponent of which was the Indian philosopher Sankara . The difficulties of acosmism are visible in his system: tendencies to deny the full reality of the changing finite, to deny the reality of evil, to deny the reality of freedom and chance, and to see individual personality as ultimately unreal. When this unifying force is apprehended, naturally he begins to sympathize with all love all mankind. Such a power is called intuition often throws a mystic into a trance. This may be called ‘cosmic consciousness’ and at this hour transcendentalism he become a ‘living soul’ oblivious to earthy existence. A mystic is more than satisfied with his soul’s apprehension of cosmic unity and he naturally refuses to discuss this matter with the rationalists who believe in “reasoning”, which is infinitely inferior to “spiritualization”.

According to Wordsworthian treatise the universe is identical with God, who is the uncaused “substance” of all things. The conception of substance is not that of a material reality but rather of a metaphysical entity, the comprehensive and self-sufficient basis for all reality. like Spinozaic categorization Wordsworth should not be taken or regarded merely as a portrayed of the beauty of nature. With the power in intuition, he has been able to penetrate into the life of natural objects and find a synchronizing one in human being- divine soul permeating in all His creations. This is his mystic experience. He is able to find a manifestation God in all objects looking through them with his cultivated eye.

Walter Raleigh rightly observes that Wordsworth forever aimed at finding the Inseparable and the Changeless in all forms animate and inanimate in the universe.  

Key Points of Romantic Poetry:

  • Romantic poetry often focuses on the individual's experience of nature, emotion, and imagination.
  • It emphasizes the importance of personal feeling and imagination, and the belief in a larger reality that transcends the individual.
  • William Wordsworth is considered one of the leading figures of the Romantic movement, and his poetry explores the tension between the self and the divine.
  • His poetry is a testament to the power of poetry to both express the individual's unique experience and to connect us with something larger than ourselves.
  • The use of simple language and imagery to evoke personal feelings and experiences.
  • The focus on the natural world as a source of inspiration and solace.
  • The exploration of mystical themes such as the soul, the divine, and the afterlife.
  • The use of symbolism and allegory to convey deeper meaning.

1. Lettres d’un Voyageur- George Sand -Translated by Sasha Rabinovitch
2. Romanticism in theory : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/isbn_9788772887869
3. lyrical-ballads by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge : William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Standard eBooks : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/william-wordsworth_samuel-taylor-coleridge_lyrical-ballads
4. Sir Walter Raleigh Selections : Raleigh Walter : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.79445

War Poetry in the 1930's: Bitterly Sarcastic as Their Attitude to War is Grimly and Convincingly Realistic


“Why do you lie with your legs ungainly huddled,
And one arm bent across your sullen, cold
Exhausted face?...
You are too young to fall asleep for ever;
And when you sleep your remind me of the dead.”
- Siegfried Sassoon (1886 - 1967)  "The Dug-Out"

Be it Mahabharata or Ramayana in the East or Iliad or Odyssey of the west, the core theme of these epics is heroism and war. Broadly speaking Milton’s Paradise Lost or ancient Beowulf are mainly concerned with battles and heroism and thus regarded the war poem. But our immediate concern is inter- war poetry or the war poetry in the 1930s which is notable for the sea change of attitude. In contrast to the romantic attitude to war as a glorious occasion for showing patriotism and heroism, the  war poets are bitterly sarcastic  as their attitude to war is grimly and convincingly realistic.

War poetry of the 1930s was often bitterly sarcastic, reflecting the grim and convincingly realistic attitude to war that was held by many poets of this period. This was due in part to the experience of the First World War, which had shown the horrors of modern warfare in all its brutality. Poets such as Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen wrote about the war in a way that was both shocking and unforgettable, using their poetry to expose the futility and waste of war.

The trauma of the First World War was first expressed by poets in the trenches challenging patriotic and military humbug; it than coloring the sensibility of an entire age. The later war poets like Siegfried Sassoon, Issac Rosenberg, and Winifred Owen increasingly saw the war as organized and motivated insanity. There poetry beer witness to the ugly truth seen through the easy of the common soldier-In session, war encouraged a direct colloquial vigor to reinforce the gruesome imagery, anger, and ridicule. Both Sassoon and Owen used realism in order to shock reader out of their complacency and expose their naked reality of dehumanized violence. After the war, Sassoon’s poetry aspired an ironic quality through an unsettled juxtaposition of viewpoints. Owen, despite his unparalleled mastery of realistic derail, achieved a truly complex, sometimes visionary detachment and distancing. Isaac Rosenberg also attempted this imaginative distancing and often used a rapid succession of images.

One of the most famous examples of this kind of war poetry is Owen's "Dulce et Decorum est" :

Bent double, like old beggars under sacks,
Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed through sludge,
Till on the haunting flares we turned our backs,
And towards our distant rest began to trudge.

The poem's opening lines vividly evoke the physical and mental suffering of the soldiers. The imagery of "bent double" and "knock-kneed" suggests the soldiers' exhaustion and vulnerability, while the sound of "coughing like hags" creates a sense of disgust and despair. The poem's final line, "And towards our distant rest began to trudge," suggests that the soldiers are only marching towards their own deaths.

While some like Hardy or Rupert Brooke, the notable Georgians world see war as offering an occasion for demonstrating one’s patriotism and heroic qualities, there were others-mainly soldier poets-who experienced a deep horror and disgust at the reality of war-a reality which was radically different from, if not opposite of, the rosy picture of war that was presented by the poets of the past and the politicians of the lime sect wide gulf of frustrations and sufferings can be seen in the poetry of many war poets. Most notable of all war poems is Wilfred Owen’s. Himself participated in war, his is the poetry of trenches, of war, of brutality of it. He is a soldier poet without any romantic felling or illusions about war-while Rupert glorifies war, Owen sings of the pity, the pathos and tragedy of it. Being a stern realist, he tears off the veil that covers the ugly face of war and exposes it is its foot and clan. The war to him is a machine for destroying precious human lived which is a colossal waste of human lives and opportunities. His notable poems Futility, Spring Offensive are few exquisite sump of him poetry. The posthumous publication The Poems of Wilfred Owen (1931) is a much more complete collection of his works and also contemns an excellent memoir by Edmund.

 The next important war poet is Siegfried Sassion. He is one of the major war poets who survived the Great world war. He joined the army in the World War I and it was in the trenches that he began to like Owen attacks the glory of war and with bitter irony his is the poem for angry protest against the Heroics of war. The old Human (1917) and Center attack (1918) are the collection of his war poems which record his bitterness for the warmongers.    

Another example of this kind of war poetry is Sassoon's "The General":

"Good morning, good morning!" the General said
When we met him last week on our way to the line.
Now the soldiers he smiled at are lying dead,
And we're cursing his staff for incompetent swine.

The poem's sarcasm is evident in the contrast between the general's cheerful greeting and the reality of the soldiers' deaths. The poem also suggests that the general is responsible for the soldiers' deaths, through his incompetence and indifference.

The bitterly sarcastic tone of these poems reflects the poets' deep disillusionment with war. They saw war as a pointless and destructive force that only brought death and suffering. Their poetry was a powerful indictment of war and a warning against its horrors.

In addition to Sassoon and Owen, other poets who wrote bitterly sarcastic war poetry in the 1930s include Robert Graves, Edmund Blunden, and Isaac Rosenberg. Their poetry helped to shape public opinion against war and contributed to the growing movement for peace.

Key points of war poetry in the 1930s:

  • War poetry of the 1930s was often bitterly sarcastic, reflecting the grim and convincingly realistic attitude to war that was held by many poets of this period.
  • This was due in part to the experience of the First World War, which had shown the horrors of modern warfare in all its brutality.
  • Poets such as Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen wrote about the war in a way that was both shocking and unforgettable, using their poetry to expose the futility and waste of war.
  • Their poetry helped to shape public opinion against war and contributed to the growing movement for peace.

Here are some specific examples of the key points:

  • The poets' use of sarcasm and irony to expose the futility and waste of war.
  • Their focus on the physical and mental suffering of the soldiers.
  • Their depiction of war as a pointless and destructive force.
  • Their use of their poetry to raise awareness of the horrors of war and to call for peace.      Ardhendu De
References:

The war poems of Wilfred Owen : Owen, Wilfred, 1893-1918 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/warpoemsofwilfre0000owen

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