REVIVAL OF POETIC DRAMA: VERSE DRAMA IN THE 20TH CENTURY


The Evolution of Poetic Drama: From Dionysian Festivals to Modern Revivals

The traditional origin of drama as the chorus in Dionysian festivals in pre – Socratic Greece has led to the primal form of the drama to be poetry. Such verse drama was seen not only in plays of these Greek masters like Aeschylus and Sophocles , but was continued by English masters such as Marlowe , Shakespeare and Ben Jonson during the Renaissance of English literature in the Elizabethan period . The belated efforts of the romantics like Wordsworth with The Borderers, Shelly with The Cenci and Byron with his Manfred were unable to remain no more than closet plays. It was only in the 20th century, when stalwarts like Yeats and Eliot made a serious foray into the genre, the poetic drama regained some of its lost status. They attempted to revive poetic drama, which had fallen out of fashion with the rise of realism. 

The Poetic Fusion: Yeats's Mythic Vision and Noh-inspired Dramas"

 The Irish poet and dramatist William Butler Yeats began by writing dreamy plays on Irish mythological plays, and from the beginning showed a symbolic power in both action and imagery which suggested levels meanings the drama had not reached for a long time. Yeats's plays were designed more for small, appreciative audiences in aristocratic drawing rooms than for the middle-class public in commercial Dublin theaters. He derived much of his innovative technique, such as the use of ritual, masks, chorus, and dance, from the nō drama. In these plays Yeats brought poetry back to theater, from which it had long been absent, and fused strict realism with mythic vision to create poetic dramas as spare and pregnant with mysterious meaning as the images of a dream.  He looks on the heroic cycles of Cú Chulainn, principal hero of the Ulster Cycle of early Irish Gaelic literature, of about the 1st century bc. As a youth, Cú Chulainn (or Cuchulainn) was renowned for his great strength and heroic deeds. He was educated by the outstanding warriors and poets of the time at the court of his uncle, Chonchobor, king of Ulster. On Bolie’s Stand (1904) Yeats searches for a tragic instance of a challenge between father and son. As in Sohrub and Rustum , this led to Cuchulainn’s slaughter of his son . Gaelic legend was again used in Deirdre. The countess Cathleen is the story of the Irish countess who sold her soul to save her people, but reached heaven after all. It is significant that most of Yeats plays were influenced by the Noh plays employing a bare stage, masked dance rhythmic instruments and a chorus which is not part of the action.

The Resurgence of Poetic Drama: T.S. Eliot's Transformative Vision

But the true resurgence of poetic drama was initiated by T.S. Eliot whose poetic plays restore ritual drama in quite a different way from that of Yeats: His study of the martyrdom of St. Thomas – a – Becket at the instigation of Henry ii in Murder in the cathedral is more than a historical play in that Thomas’s temptation and sacrifice are made symbolic of every man’s vocation to surrender to the divine will. The historical meditation Murder in the Cathedral (1935), a verse play, deals with the martyrdom of Saint Thomas à Becket at Canterbury Cathedral.  In this play one notes the influence of Greek tragedy, of Samson Agonistes and of the medieval morality. In his later plays Eliot moves away from the obviously ritualistic mode and tries to achieve overtones of myth and ritual in realistic plays of modern upper class life. In The Cocktail Party estrangement between Edward and his wife, Havana, is averted by the guidance and wisdom of the unidentified stranger and this is again symbolic of divine assistance. The other plays of Eliot include The Confidential Clerk, The Elder Statesman and The Family Reunion.

The Stages of Poetic Drama: Exploring Influential Works and Themes

After Eliot, Christopher Fry has been the biggest stimulus to poetic drama. The realm of poetic drama has been enriched by notable playwrights such as Christopher Fry, whose works like  The Boy with a Cart  and  The Lady's Not for Burning  captivate audiences with their themes of devotion, justice, and verbal artistry. His first play The Boy with a Cart (1939) presents the life of a saint who pushes his mother about in a cart until he finds a place to fulfill his aim and build a church, In The Lady’s Not for Burning (1949), the hero is determined to be hanged for murder in spite of not having committed any crime. Fry’s Venus Observed, a comedy, is play no true to his genius, for his verbal exuberance and playfulness finds its full expression. 

Murder in the Cathedral (1935) led to a good deal of religious and poetic drama. The old Man of the Mountains by Norman Nicholson presents the story of Elijah and the story is winy and disciplined. The zeal of Thy House, a play by Dorothy Sayers, deals with events at the time of the construction of the cathedral of Canterbury and explores the theme of divine and human creativity.  Ronald Duncan’s This way to the Tomb is a masque presenting 14th century martyrdom. Anne Ridler’s Nativity play, The Shadowy Factory, has a distinctly contemporary tone.

Conclusion

 There is no doubt that the revival of poetic drama and the resurgence of verse drama in the 20th century have brought forth a renaissance of verbal artistry on the theatrical stage. Playwrights like Christopher Fry, Norman Nicholson, Dorothy Sayers, Ronald Duncan, and Anne Ridler have breathed new life into this genre, infusing it with themes of devotion, justice, creativity, and contemporary perspectives. Their works stand as testament to the enduring power and timeless beauty of poetic drama, captivating audiences with their lyrical expression and profound storytelling.

 
Ref: 1. the aims of poetic drama : t.s. eliot : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/aimsofpoeticdram0000tsel
      2. Modern poetic drama : Thouless, Priscilla : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/modernpoeticdram0000unse

John Milton's "Paradise Lost" : Satan’s Speeches Reflect His Personality


Satan's Speeches in Paradise Lost: A Magnificent Blend of Rhetoric, Passion, and Psychological Insight

Satan's Persuasive Power

If William Blake ever declared that Milton, ‘was of the Devil’s party without knowing it’ (The Marriage of Heaven and Hell), the judgment stems chiefly from the fact that Satan’s speeches were so admirable and arousing that even the devout of Christians would not be able to refrain from holding Satan in great esteem. Though some critics like C.S. Lewis may arraign Satan for his ‘blatant lies’ (A Preface to Paradise Lost), it must be conceded that Satan believed at least sound of his arguments to be true. Further at would be naïve to expect a leader, and particularly one of Satanic stature, to adhere only to facts, Satan is a leader of the rebels, and a leader’s success lies in motivating his people. Satan’s speeches, magnificent as they are in their psychological insight, passionate feeling and rhetorical grandeur, must be judged only by that yardstick.



John Milton’s Pandemonium in "Paradise Lost" Book I : The Capital of Hell


Pandemonium: The Infernal Marvel of Milton's Creation

The pandemonium is that creation in hell designed for infernal conclaves which would rival in its splendor the greatest of human creations and perhaps even divine architecture. It is a word formed by the union of two Greek words, pan, all, and daemon, demon, but the compound word did not exist in the Greek vocabulary, and Milton formed it out the analogy of ‘pantheon’, the abode of the gods. The pantheon at Rome was a temple containing statues of all the gods. Milton’s pandemonium is the capital of Hell built to receive all the devils. The coinages of Milton have gained currency in the English, the common noun being used to express a place full of tumultuous voice, confusion and discord.

Edmund Spenser's "The Faerie Queene": Brief Sketches on His Moral Purposes


The noblest mind the best contentment has.
 The Faerie Queene

 Introduction

In spite of the variety and beauty of his shorter poems, The Faerie Queene( 1609) is by far the most important of Spenser’s works. “Virgil without the Aeneid, Milton without Paradise Lost ------ would still rank as the great poets”, C.S. Lewis observed “whereas Spenser’s reputation is almost entirely dependent on the Faerie Queene

Purpose and Structure

In his educatory letter to sir Walter Raleigh , Spenser explains that his book is 'continued allegory or dark conceit ' of which the general purpose is to fashion a gentle man or noble person in virtuous and gentle discipline '. These were to be twelve books , each book to deal with the adventures of a particular knight , who was to represent some Virtue, He has chosen king Arthur as his epic hero and in his person represents 'magnificence ' as being the perfection of all the virtues , and makes twelve other Knights the 'patroness ' of the twelve other virtues. 

The Narrative

The poem plunges in Medias res and speaker himself explains that if a historian had represented the events of the poem chronologically, the starting point would have been what was to occur in the twelfth and the last book (incomplete) of his poem. This was to show the Faerie Queene keeping her annual twelve - day feast and on each day, being affected by a disastrous dragon a distressed person appears to the Queene unexpectedly for help. The Queene also sends each day a heroic knight to right the wrong and to let the oppressed go free.

 Writing Style and Influence

For The Faerie Queene, Spenser introduced a new verse form known as the Spenserian stanza, which became associated with his work. This verse form consists of nine lines, with the first eight lines written in iambic pentameter and the final line in iambic hexameter (also known as an Alexandrine). Spenser's innovative use of this stanza contributed to the distinctiveness and influence of his poem.

Conclusion

Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene stands as his magnum opus, surpassing his other poems in significance and reputation. Its moral purposes revolve around educating and shaping a noble individual through virtuous discipline. While incomplete, the six completed books demonstrate Spenser's mastery of allegory, his narrative skill, and the introduction of the renowned Spenserian stanza.

Answer These Questions:
1.   What is a Spenserian stanza?
2.   Is the statement true or false: “Spenser originally planned the poem to consist of 12 books, each made up of 12 cantos; he completed only 6 books, however.”
3.   Who is “Forsaken Truth”?
4.  What is called an allegory? 


References
1. The Faerie queene : Spenser, Edmund, 1552?-1599 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/faeriequeene02spen

The Elements and Design of Tragedy: The Tragic Hero, Catharsis, Hamartia, and Comic Relief


The Anatomy of Tragedy: Exploring the Tragic Hero, Catharsis, Hamartia, and Comic Relief


A tragedy is a serious play representing the disastrous downfall of a central character, the most influential definition of tragedy is that of Aristotle in his Poetics which says that tragedy is the imitation of an action that is serious and complete in achieving a catharsis through incidents arousing pity and terror. Aristotle also observed that the protagonist is led in to fatal calamity by his hamartia or ‘error’ which often takes the form of hubris or excessive pride. The tragic effect usually depends on our awareness of admirable qualities in the protagonist which are wasted terribly in the fated disaster.

The most painfully tragic plays like Shakespeare’s King Lear shows a disproportion between the hero’s initial error and the destruction with which it is punished. Modern tragedies are different from the earlier ones in the sense that they depict socially inferior heroes of domestic comedy, heroes who are notes heroic as Aristotle would have desired. Some critics also define tragedy as a dramatization of man’s sense of being threatened by fate and even his own nature.

The Domestic Novel and Themes of Jane Austen's "Pride and Prejudice"


Introduction

Jane Austen's domestic novels are renowned for their intricate exploration of everyday life. With a keen eye for satire, Austen exposes the attitudes prevalent in the rural middle and upper-middle classes. In Pride and Prejudice, she centers the story on the Bennett sisters, delving into their domestic lives and aspirations. Elizabeth, Jane, and their siblings navigate the complexities of love, societal expectations, and personal growth. Austen's insightful portrayal of the Bennett family offers a captivating glimpse into the ordinary yet captivating world of the middle class, making Pride and Prejudice a timeless masterpiece. 

 Domestic Life: Exploring Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice

Jane Austen’s novels have rightly been called domestic novels. For one thing, 'She never goes out of the parlor' and chooses to work with two or three families in a small village as her source material. Thus, in Pride and Prejudice, she primarily delves into the domestic life and aspirations of the Bennet family, with some focus on the Lees as well. These are ordinary middle-class people with nothing extraordinary or exceptional about them. The novel satirizes the attitudes of the rural middle and upper-middle classes. Austen centers her story around the Bennett daughters: Elizabeth, Jane, and Lydia. Elizabeth, a spirited girl, holds a 'prejudice' against the wealthy landowner Fitzwilliam Darcy, scorning his lofty attitudes and pride. In the first excerpt, Darcy visits Elizabeth and her friend Charlotte under the mistaken belief that all the ladies of the house are present. In the second excerpt, Elizabeth accuses Darcy of sabotaging her sister Jane's engagement to Bingley, Jane's fiancé. However, upon receiving a letter of explanation from Darcy, Elizabeth recognizes the errors in her judgment and discovers faults in her own nature. Thus, the action revolves around the everyday occurrences of visits, dinners, and occasional balls. However, such is the art of the novelist that even this homely material is treated dramatically and made gripping, capturing our interest.

Thomas Sterns Eliot’s "The Waste Land": Brief Comments on Thematic Unity


The first fifty years of the 20th century pass the emergence of two major poets in Great Britain and their contribution to Briton poetry is of immense value. First came W.B. Yeats an Irishman and the other, Thomas Sterns Eliot, an American who made England his home. And it was with the publication of The waste Land, in 1922, that Eliot came to be recognized as a leading light of English poetry in the period following the great war.

T.S. Eliot
The poem is written is an extremely difficult style. It is extremely rich in recondite symbolism and obscure references to ancient literate, mythology, history and even religion. The poem has five sections- (a) The Burial of the Dead (b) The Game of Chess (c) The Fire Sermon (d) Death By Water (e) What the Thunder Said. The uniting link between these five parts is the figure of Tiresias. However, it is less a unity of character than a unity of mood. It’s the mood of despair and gloom that there is a remote possibility of hope and redemption.

So, T.S. Eliot's "The Waste Land" becomes a complex and fragmented modernist poem that explores themes of disillusionment, fragmentation, and the search for meaning in a post-World War I world.

Section I: "The Burial of the Dead"

This section sets the tone for the poem, with its depiction of a barren, lifeless landscape and a sense of spiritual emptiness. It introduces the theme of death and rebirth and suggests the need for renewal.

Section II: "A Game of Chess"

This section contrasts the lives of the wealthy and the poor, highlighting the disillusionment and boredom of the former and the struggles of the latter. It explores the themes of loneliness and communication breakdown.

Section III: "The Fire Sermon"

This section explores the theme of desire, focusing on the sexual experiences of different characters. It highlights the emptiness and futility of their encounters and the fragmentation of modern life.

Section IV: "Death by Water"

This section reflects on the fragility and impermanence of life, using the imagery of water as a symbol of both life and death. It suggests the need for acceptance of the transience of life.

Section V: "What the Thunder Said"

This section concludes the poem with a sense of hope and renewal. It draws on diverse religious and cultural symbols to suggest the possibility of redemption and the hope for a new beginning.

T.S. Eliot projects several levels of modern experiment in The Waste Land. It critiques the emptiness of contemporary life, highlighting the decay of spiritual and moral values and the challenges of forming meaningful connections. The poem's lasting impact lies in its ability to capture the sense of disillusionment and fragmentation that characterize modernity. These are related to various symbolic wastelands in modern times, such as. (A) The wasteland of religion, where there are but no warts. (B) The wasteland of spirit, where all spring have dried up; and (C) The wasteland of the reproductive instinct, sex has become a means of physical satisfaction rather than a source of regeneration.

(A) The wasteland of religion: Eliot presents the decay of religious values and the emptiness of modern life devoid of spiritual guidance. The poem criticizes the contemporary society's loss of faith and its tendency towards materialism.

(B) The wasteland of spirit: The poem portrays the sense of disillusionment and alienation that characterize modernity. Eliot emphasizes the fragmentation of the individual and the loss of connection to a sense of community or shared values.

(C) The wasteland of the reproductive instinct: Eliot explores the impact of sexual desire on human relationships and the inability to create meaningful connections in a world devoid of intimacy. The poem depicts the isolation and despair of individuals unable to form lasting relationships.

The poet communicates to the reader his own sense of anarchy and futility that he tends everywhere in the contemporary world. He has no intention of expressing disillusionment of an endive generation. But the poem remains an important document of social criticism of the world to which Eliot belonged.

Most Common Literary Terms; Schools; Movements


Most common Literary Terms

Schools of Literature

Literary Movements

Metaphor

Simile

Symbolism

Irony

Foreshadowing

Alliteration

Personification

Hyperbole

Allegory

Imagery

Theme

Tone

Point of view

Conflict

Setting

Plot

Characterization

Satire

Rhyme

Protagonist

Romanticism

Realism

Naturalism

Modernism

Postmodernism

Existentialism

Transcendentalism

Harlem Renaissance

Beat Generation

Renaissance

Victorian Literature

Gothic Literature

Surrealism

Magical Realism

Southern Gothic

Minimalism

Harlem Renaissance

Absurdism

Dadaism

Symbolism

Renaissance

Enlightenment

Romanticism

Realism

Naturalism

Symbolism

Modernism

Postmodernism

Beat Generation

Harlem Renaissance

Transcendentalism

Existentialism

Surrealism

Dadaism

Imagism

Cubism

Futurism

Magical Realism

Minimalism

Absurdism


Most common Literary Terms:

Wordsworthian definition of poetry: Poetry is a criticism of life, masters the laws of poetic trust and poetic beauty. Poetry is a spontaneous overflow of powerful fillings, taking its origin from emotions recollected in tranquility.
Poetic justice: The term poetic justice is coined by Thomas Rhyme. It means exact reward or punishment given to a character according to his good or bed deeds. This exactness of rustics is possible only in the word of poetry.
Epic: The epic is the greatest and most sublime from of poetry. The Epic in a long poem divided in to several books, celebrating the life, heroic deeds and a achievements of a national hero, whether his trice or legendry.
Mock epic: Mock epic is a paved of real epic in a very trivial or funny incident on which a gab of classical conveyors of a real epic are overlaid.
Sonnet: The term sonnet is derived from the Italian sonnet to which means ‘a little sound’. It is a mystical poem of 14 lines written in Iambic pentameter and linked by an intricate rhyme scheme.
Ode: Ode is a long lyrical poem, serious in subject, elevated in style and elaborates in its stanza structure. It is in the form of an address to the object or the person about whom it is written.
Elegy: An elegy is essentially a poem of mourning or lamentation on the death of some particular person. In the wider use it may also be a poem of mourning on the mortality and vanity of human life in general.
Ballad: THE word ‘Ballad’ literally means ‘a drama song’ Troupes of wondering singers used to sins them from village to village. They generally sang of the brave deeds and heroic exploits of historical or legendary heroes and knights.
Satire: Dryden defines the sativa as ‘a literary composition whose principal aim is to ridicule folly or vice. The true end of satire is an amendment of vices by correction’.
 A healthy satire good humouredly exposes one’s folly or vice.
Interludes: The Interludes were generally short entertainments inserted within a longer play or amidst some other festivities or festivals. Their primary fun lion was to entertain the audience by humored or by farce.
Tragedy: The tragedy is to the tragic story of a good and great man who, on account of a slight tam in his character, passer trouser a harrowing emotional and spiritual crisis, and focally meets his doom and death
Tragi-comedy: A Tragi- comedy is an artiste’s combination of both tragedy and comedy. It develops as a tragedy to the point of climax, and then takes a happy turn and finally ends into a happy denouement.
Comedy: The comedy is a type of drama characterized by romantic love, humour, pleasantry, and light satire and cross love finally leading to a happy denouement. Thugs fortune may be unkind to some stage, all ends happily at last.
Metaphor: A figure of speech that compares two unlike things without using "like" or "as," such as "Her heart is a stone."
Simile: A figure of speech that compares two unlike things using "like" or "as," such as "He runs as fast as a cheetah."
Symbolism: The use of objects, characters, or actions to represent abstract ideas or qualities, like a dove representing peace.
Irony: A contrast between what is expected and what actually happens, such as a fire station burning down.
Foreshadowing: Hints or clues about events that will occur later in a story, like a character mentioning their fear of heights before a plane crash.
Alliteration: The repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words, like "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers."
Personification: Giving human qualities or characteristics to non-human things, like "The wind whispered through the trees."
Hyperbole: Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally, such as "I've told you a million times."
Allegory: A story or poem that has a hidden meaning, often used to convey moral or political messages, like "Animal Farm" by George Orwell.
Imagery: Descriptive language that appeals to the senses and creates mental images, such as "The golden sun sank beneath the horizon."
Theme: The central message or main idea of a literary work, like "The importance of family" in "To Kill a Mockingbird."
Tone: The author's attitude or emotional stance towards the subject, like a sarcastic tone in a satirical piece.
Point of view: The perspective from which a story is told, like first-person ("I") or third-person ("he/she").
Conflict: A struggle or problem faced by characters, which can be internal or external, like a character battling their own fears or a war between nations.
Setting: The time and place in which a story takes place, like the Victorian era in England.
Plot: The sequence of events that make up a story, including the exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.
Characterization: The methods used to develop and describe characters, including their appearance, actions, thoughts, and dialogue.
Satire: The use of humor, irony, or exaggeration to criticize or mock human vices or follies, like "Gulliver's Travels" by Jonathan Swift.
Rhyme: The repetition of similar sounds in the ending syllables of words, like "cat" and "hat."
Protagonist: The main character or central figure in a story, often involved in the main conflict and driving the narrative forward.

Schools of Literature:

Romanticism: An artistic, literary, and intellectual movement emphasizing emotions, individuality, and nature, with notable works by William Wordsworth and Lord Byron.
Realism: A movement that focuses on depicting life as it is, without idealization or exaggeration, as seen in the works of Gustave Flaubert and Mark Twain.
Naturalism: A literary movement that emphasizes the influence of natural forces and hereditary factors on human lives, exemplified by Émile Zola's novels.
Modernism: A movement that rejects traditional forms and techniques, experimenting with new narrative styles and themes, seen in works by James Joyce and Virginia Woolf.
Postmodernism: A movement that challenges traditional narratives, embracing fragmentation, intertextuality, and self-reflexivity, exemplified by works like "House of Leaves
Existentialism: A philosophical movement explored in literature that focuses on individual existence, freedom, and the search for meaning, as depicted in the works of Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus.
Transcendentalism: A literary and philosophical movement emphasizing spirituality, intuition, and the inherent goodness of nature, with notable figures like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.
Harlem Renaissance: A cultural and artistic movement centered in Harlem, New York during the 1920s, celebrating African American identity and showcasing works by Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston.
Victorian Literature: Literature produced during the reign of Queen Victoria in the 19th century, often characterized by moral values, social criticism, and strict societal norms, seen in the works of Charles Dickens and Jane Austen.
Gothic Literature: A genre that explores dark, mysterious, and supernatural elements, often set in gloomy settings and featuring themes of horror and romance, with examples like "Dracula" by Bram Stoker and "Frankenstein" by Mary Shelley.
Surrealism: An artistic and literary movement that sought to unleash the power of the unconscious mind, emphasizing dream-like imagery and irrational juxtapositions, exemplified by the works of Salvador Dalí and André Breton.
Magical Realism: A literary genre that combines realistic narratives with magical or fantastical elements seamlessly, often found in works by Gabriel García Márquez and Isabel Allende.
Southern Gothic: A subgenre of Gothic literature that focuses on the Southern United States, characterized by a sense of decay, grotesque characters, and elements of the supernatural, seen in works like "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee.

Literary Movements:

Renaissance: Renaissance  means revival or rebirth of Greek learning, rat, literature and culture of the middle Age in Europe. In England it comes through Italy flourished in the Elizabethan Age in the works of Shakespeare, Spenser, Merowe and Ben Jonson. A period of cultural and intellectual rebirth in Europe during the 14th to 17th centuries, marked by a renewed interest in classical learning and artistic achievements, including works by William Shakespeare and Leonardo da Vinci. 
Reformation: Reformation was a religious Movement led by Martin Luther in the fifteenth century. It protested against the practices of the Roman Catholic Chance. It advocated complete faith in the Bible and one’s own soul for salvation.
Enlightenment: A philosophical movement in the 18th century that emphasized reason, science, and human progress, with influential thinkers like Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
Romanticism: An artistic, literary, andintellectual movement of the late 18th to mid-19th century that emphasized emotion, imagination, and individualism, with notable figures such as William Wordsworth and Mary Shelley.
Realism: A movement that emerged in the mid-19th century, depicting life as it is without idealization, often addressing social issues and everyday experiences, seen in the works of Gustave Flaubert and Leo Tolstoy.
Naturalism: A literary movement that emerged in the late 19th century, focusing on the influence of heredity and environment on human lives, portraying characters as products of their circumstances, as seen in the novels of Émile Zola and Theodore Dreiser.
Symbolism: A late 19th-century movement that sought to express ideas and emotions through symbols and evocative imagery, transcending the literal meaning, as exemplified in the poetry of Charles Baudelaire and Stéphane Mallarmé.
Modernism: A literary and artistic movement that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by experimentation, fragmentation, and a rejection of traditional norms, seen in works by James Joyce and Virginia Woolf.
Postmodernism: A movement that emerged in the mid-20th century, challenging the notion of objective truth, embracing intertextuality, irony, and self-reflexivity, as seen in the works of authors like Italo Calvino and Thomas Pynchon.
Beat Generation: A literary movement of the 1950s and 1960s, characterized by a rejection of mainstream values, exploration of alternative lifestyles, and spontaneous, free-form writing, with notable writers including Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg.
Harlem Renaissance: A cultural and artistic movement of the 1920s centered in Harlem, New York, celebrating African American identity, literature, and art, with influential figures such as Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston.
Transcendentalism: A philosophical and literary movement of the 19th century that emphasized the inherent goodness of individuals and nature, promoting self-reliance and spiritual connection, with key thinkers like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.
Existentialism: A philosophical and literary movement that emerged in the 20th century, exploring themes of individual existence, freedom, and the search for meaning in an absurd world, as depicted in the works of Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus.
Surrealism: An artistic and literary movement that emerged in the early 20th century, seeking to unleash the power of the unconscious mind, combining dream-like imagery, irrationality, and unexpected juxtapositions, seen in the works of Salvador Dalí and André Breton.
Dadaism: An avant-garde movement that emerged during World War I, rejecting traditional artistic and literary conventions, embracing nonsense, irrationality, and anti-establishment ideas, with influential figures including Marcel Duchamp and Tristan Tzara.
Imagism: A movement in early 20th-century poetry that emphasized the use of precise, vivid imagery and the economy of language, favoring clarity and directness, with poets like Ezra Pound and H.D. (Hilda Doolittle).
Cubism: An artistic movement in the early 20th century that revolutionized visual representation, depicting objects from multiple perspectives and breaking them down into geometric forms, with Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque as key figures.
Futurism: An artistic and literary movement that emerged in the early 20th century, celebrating the dynamism, speed, and progress of the modern world, rejecting the past and embracing technology, with Filippo Tommaso Marinetti as its leading figure.
Magical Realism: A literary movement that originated in Latin America, combining realistic narratives with magical or fantastical elements, blurring the boundaries between the ordinary and extraordinary, as seen in the works of Gabriel García Márquez and Isabel Allende.
Minimalism: A literary style characterized by simplicity, brevity, and a focus on sparse language and precise descriptions, often exploring themes of alienation and the mundane, with writers like Raymond Carver and Ann Beattie.
Absurdism: A philosophical and literary movement that arose after World War II, highlighting the senselessness and irrationality of human existence, often employing dark humor and depicting characters trapped in absurd situations, as found in the works of Samuel Beckett and Eugène Ionesco.


References

1. ALBERT. (2000). History of English Literature (Fifth Edition) [English]. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
2. An outline history of English literature : Hudson, William Henry, 1862-1918 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/outlinehistoryof00hudsuoft

Redefining the Goals of General Indian Learners of English in the PostColonial Context: English Teaching-Learning Framework Today; Post Independent Language Policy


The Language policy followed in the Post independence era was expected to be vernacular rather than upon pro English. Mahatma Gandhi, as early as 1937, had commented on the deleterious effect of early education though English:
 “English having been made the medium of in striation in all the hasher branches of learning has created a permanent bar between the highly educated few and the medicated many. It has prevailed knowledge from percolating to the masses. The excessive importance given to English has cast upon the educated class a burden which has maimed then mentally for life and made then strangers in their own land.”

Mock Test Examination, Oct 2012 : Difficulty Level: Graduation: PART – I



 PART – I
Difficulty Level: Graduation
Full marks: 100 Time: 3hrs

(a)    Answer ANY TEN question: 10*3= 30
  1.   What is called sonnet sequence? Mention two sequences along with their authors.
  2. What is the meaning of the tile word Astrophel and Stella?
  3. Bring out the significance. What is the meaning of the title word Amoretti? How many sonnets are there in this series?
  4. “Oft turning other’s are leaves, to see if there would flow some fresh and fruitful showers upon my sun burnt brain”-Whose brain is ‘sun burnt’ and why? What is meant by ‘showers’?
  5. Which is called ‘nature’s child’ and why?
  6. ‘Vain man’, said she, “that dost in vain assay”- Why does the lady call the man ‘vain’? It the lady right in saying so?
  7.  “My verse yours virtues rare shall eternize”- rewrite the sentence in proper grammatical order. What kind of rhetoric is in the quoted line?
  8.   To whom does Shakespeare address his Sonnet no 130? Give two examples of ‘false comparisons’ criticized by Shakespeare this sonnet?
  9. What is called ‘Volta’ of a sonnet?
  10. What is stanza division of Shakespearean sonnet? How is it different from Spenser’s?
  11.   Why is the poet, Sidney eager to write verse and to address it to the beloved?
b    B.  Explain with reference to the context ALL the following passages: 10*4=40
  1.   And yet by heaven, I think my love as rare, As any she belied with false compare.
  2.   O; none, unless this miracle have might, That in black ink my love may still shine bright
  3.   Where when as death shall all the world subdue, Our love shall live, and later life renew
  4.   Biting my truant pen, beating myself for spite /”Fool”, said my Muse to me, “Look in thy heart, and write;
 C.    Answer any TWO- essay type.15*2=30
1.       Spenser’s Sonnet No.75 has a derma tic texture and lyrical tendency-discuss.
2.       Sidney’s Sonnet No.1 has a divination of poetic creativity- discuss
3.        Critically appreciate SHAKESPEARE’S Sonnet No.130



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Objective Questions from English Literature

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